two-photon-calcium-imaging-mice-navigating-virtual-reality

Two-photon Calcium Imaging in Mice Navigating a Virtual Reality Environment

In recent years, two-photon imaging has become an invaluable tool in neuroscience, as it allows for chronic measurement of the activity of genetically ...

To generate complex bilateral motor patterns such as those underlying birdsong, neural activity must be highly coordinated across the two cerebral hemispheres. However, it remains largely elusive how this coordination is achieved given that interhemispheric communication between song-control areas in the avian cerebrum is restricted to projections received from bilaterally connecting areas in the mid- and hindbrain. By electrically stimulating cerebral premotor areas in zebra finches, we find that behavioral effectiveness of stimulation rapidly switches between hemispheres. In time intervals in which stimulation in one hemisphere tends to distort songs, stimulation in the other hemisphere is mostly ineffective, revealing an idiosyncratic form of motor dominance that bounces back and forth between hemispheres like a virtual ping-pong ball. The intervals of lateralized effectiveness are broadly distributed and are unrelated to simple spectral and temporal song features. Such interhemispheric switching could be an important dynamical aspect of neural coordination that may have evolved from simpler pattern generator circuits.

Rapid interhemispheric switching during vocal production in a songbird.

Songbirds are capable of vocal learning and communication and are ideally suited to the study of neural mechanisms of complex sensory and motor processing. Vocal communication in a noisy bird colony and vocal learning of a specific song template both require the ability to monitor auditory feedback to distinguish self-generated vocalizations from external sounds and to identify mismatches between the developing song and a memorized template acquired from a tutor. However, neurons that respond to auditory feedback from vocal output have not been found in song-control areas despite intensive searching. Here we investigate feedback processing outside the traditional song system, in single auditory forebrain neurons of juvenile zebra finches that were in a late developmental stage of song learning. Overall, we found similarity of spike responses during singing and during playback of the bird's own song, with song responses commonly leading by a few milliseconds. However, brief time-locked acoustic perturbations of auditory feedback revealed complex sensitivity that could not be predicted from passive playback responses. Some neurons that responded to playback perturbations did not respond to song perturbations, which is reminiscent of sensory-motor mirror neurons. By contrast, some neurons were highly feedback sensitive in that they responded vigorously to song perturbations, but not to unperturbed songs or perturbed playback. These findings suggest that a computational function of forebrain auditory areas may be to detect errors between actual feedback and mirrored feedback deriving from an internal model of the bird's own song or that of its tutor. Such feedback-sensitive spikes could constitute the key signals that trigger adaptive motor responses to song disruptions or reinforce exploratory motor gestures for vocal learning.

Neural processing of auditory feedback during vocal practice in a songbird.

Studies in anesthetized animals have suggested that activity in early visual cortex is mainly driven by visual input and is well described by a feedforward processing hierarchy. However, evidence from experiments on awake animals has shown that both eye movements and behavioral state can strongly modulate responses of neurons in visual cortex; the functional significance of this modulation, however, remains elusive. Using visual-flow feedback manipulations during locomotion in a virtual reality environment, we found that responses in layer 2/3 of mouse primary visual cortex are strongly driven by locomotion and by mismatch between actual and expected visual feedback. These data suggest that processing in visual cortex may be based on predictive coding strategies that use motor-related and visual input to detect mismatches between predicted and actual visual feedback.

Sensorimotor mismatch signals in primary visual cortex of the behaving mouse.

Homeostatic plasticity is important to maintain a set level of activity in neuronal circuits and has been most extensively studied in cell cultures following activity blockade. It is still unclear, however, whether activity changes associated with mechanisms of homeostatic plasticity occur in vivo, for example after changes in sensory input. Here, we show that activity levels in the visual cortex are significantly decreased after sensory deprivation by retinal lesions, followed by a gradual increase in activity levels in the 48 hr after deprivation. These activity changes are associated with synaptic scaling, manifested in vitro by an increase in mEPSC amplitude and in vivo by an increase in spine size. Together, these data show that homeostatic activity changes occur in vivo in parallel with synaptic scaling.

Article	Year
Rapid interhemispheric switching during vocal production in a songbird. PLoS biology\| PubMed ID: 18922044	2008
Neural processing of auditory feedback during vocal practice in a songbird. Nature\| PubMed ID: 19005471	2009
Sensorimotor mismatch signals in primary visual cortex of the behaving mouse. Neuron\| PubMed ID: 22681686	2012
Synaptic scaling and homeostatic plasticity in the mouse visual cortex in vivo. Neuron\| PubMed ID: 24139037	2013

Georg B. Keller

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