modeling-astrocytoma-pathogenesis-vitro-vivo-using-cortical

Modeling Astrocytoma Pathogenesis <em>In Vitro</em> and <em>In Vivo</em> Using Cortical Astrocytes or Neural Stem Cells from Conditional, Genetically Engineered Mice

Current astrocytoma models are limited in their ability to define the roles of oncogenic mutations in specific brain cell types during disease ...

Spatial and temporal changes in expression and function of integrin receptors in the developing cerebral wall parallel neurogenesis, radial glial differentiation, neuronal migration and the emergence of neuronal layers in the cerebral cortex. The distinct outcomes of integrin and extracellular matrix ligand mutations underscore the dynamic role they play in these processes during corticogenesis. The changing patterns of adhesive interactions mediated by integrins and their ligands across the cerebral wall during embryogenesis may set in motion developmental programs needed for progressive acquisition of different neuronal or glial phenotypes in the cerebral cortex. Here we discuss the role of integrins during cortical layer formation.

Role of integrins in the development of the cerebral cortex.

Radial glial cells and astrocytes function to support the construction and maintenance, respectively, of the cerebral cortex. However, the mechanisms that determine how radial glial cells are established, maintained, and transformed into astrocytes in the cerebral cortex are not well understood. Here, we show that neuregulin-1 (NRG-1) exerts a critical role in the establishment of radial glial cells. Radial glial cell generation is significantly impaired in NRG mutants, and this defect can be rescued by exogenous NRG-1. Down-regulation of expression and activity of erbB2, a member of the NRG-1 receptor complex, leads to the transformation of radial glial cells into astrocytes. Reintroduction of erbB2 transforms astrocytes into radial glia. The activated form of the Notch1 receptor, which promotes the radial glial phenotype, activates the erbB2 promoter in radial glial cells. These results suggest that developmental changes in NRG-1-erbB2 interactions modulate the establishment of radial glia and contribute to their appropriate transformation into astrocytes.

Neuregulin 1-erbB2 signaling is required for the establishment of radial glia and their transformation into astrocytes in cerebral cortex.

We show that alpha3 integrin mutation disrupts distinct aspects of neuronal migration and placement in the cerebral cortex. The preplate develops normally in alpha3 integrin mutant mice. However, time lapse imaging of migrating neurons in embryonic cortical slices indicates retarded radial and tangential migration of neurons, but not ventricular zone-directed migration. Examination of the actin cytoskeleton of alpha3 integrin mutant cortical cells reveals aberrant actin cytoskeletal dynamics at the leading edges. Deficits are also evident in the ability of developing neurons to probe their cellular environment with filopodial and lamellipodial activity. Calbindin or calretinin positive upper layer neurons as well as the deep layer neurons of alpha3 integrin mutant mice expressing EGFP were misplaced. These results suggest that alpha3beta1 integrin deficiency impairs distinct patterns of neuronal migration and placement through dysregulated actin dynamics and defective ability to search and respond to migration modulating cues in the developing cortex.

alpha3beta1 integrin modulates neuronal migration and placement during early stages of cerebral cortical development.

Organized neuronal migration and guided axon outgrowth are key determinants of the development of the functional nervous system. L1, a member of the Ig superfamily of cell surface receptors, stimulates cell migration and neurite outgrowth through the MAP kinases ERK1, 2. The signaling molecules participating in this signaling cascade have only partly been identified. Here it is shown that L1 clustering activates the guanine nucleotide exchange factor (GEF) Vav2 and the Rac1 effector p21 associated kinase 1 (Pak1). Also, we found that Pak1 kinase activity contributes to ERK activation by L1, and is necessary for L1-potentiated haptotactic cell migration. A signaling pathway is proposed from L1 through Vav2, Rac1, Pak1 and ERK that may be important for L1 mediated neuronal cell migration.

Adhesion molecule L1 stimulates neuronal migration through Vav2-Pak1 signaling.

Extracellular matrix-like molecule reelin and cell surface adhesion receptors such as alpha3beta1 integrin can regulate neuronal migration and position in the developing cerebral cortex. Here we show that alpha3beta1 integrin binds to the N-terminal region of reelin, a site distinct from the region of reelin shown to associate with other reelin receptors such as VLDLR/ApoER2. Furthermore, Dab1, a member of the reelin signaling pathway, can complex with the cytoplasmic region of beta1 integrin in a reelin-dependent manner. Thus, alpha3beta1 integrin-reelin interactions may contribute to appropriate neuronal placement in the developing cerebral cortex.

Reelin, integrin and DAB1 interactions during embryonic cerebral cortical development.

Radial glia play an essential role in the generation of the cerebral cortex through their function as neuronal precursors and as neuronal migration guides. A molecular marker for radial glia in the developing central nervous system is the brain lipid-binding protein (BLBP). To generate mouse models for the visualization and study of radial glia, we expressed EGFP, EYFP, or dsRed2 in transgenic mice under the control of the BLBP promoter. In these transgenic lines, fluorescent protein expression is restricted to radial glia in the embryonic cortex and to astrocytes in the adult brain. Electroporation of the transgenes into embryonic cortex also resulted in radial glia-specific transgene expression. These BLBP promoter driven transgenic mice and organotypic brain slices expressing different fluorescent markers in a radial glia-specific manner will be useful tools to further study the differentiation and function of radial glia in distinct regions of the developing CNS.

Generation and characterization of brain lipid-binding protein promoter-based transgenic mouse models for the study of radial glia.

Radial glial cells play a critical role in the construction of mammalian brain by functioning as a source of new neurons and by providing a scaffold for radial migration of new neurons to their target locations. Radial glia transform into astrocytes at the end of embryonic development. Strategies to promote functional recovery in the injured adult brain depend on the generation of new neurons and the appropriate guidance of these neurons to where they are needed, two critical functions of radial glia. Thus, the competence to regain radial glial identity in the adult brain is of significance for the ability to promote functional repair via neurogenesis and targeted neuronal migration in the mature brain. Here we show that the in vivo induction of the tyrosine kinase receptor, ErbB2, in mature astrocytes enables a subset of them to regain radial glial identity in the mature cerebral cortex. These new radial glial progenitors are capable of giving rise to new neurons and can support neuronal migration. These studies indicate that ErbB2 signaling critically modulates the functional state of radial glia, and induction of ErbB2 in distinct adult astrocytes can promote radial glial identity in the mature cerebral cortex.

Reinduction of ErbB2 in astrocytes promotes radial glial progenitor identity in adult cerebral cortex.

Rett syndrome, a pervasive X-linked neurodevelopmental disorder in young girls, is caused by loss-of-function mutations in the gene that encodes the transcriptional repressor methyl-CpG-binding protein 2 (MeCP2). Mecp2-knockout mice phenocopy the major symptoms found in human patients and have advanced our understanding of the function of MeCP2 and mechanism of Rett syndrome. To study the behavior of the MeCP2 protein in vivo, we have generated a knock-in reporter mouse model that expresses MeCP2-enhanced green fluorescent protein (EGFP) fusion protein instead of endogenous MeCP2. Here we show that expression of the fusion protein in the brain remarkably mirrors endogenous MeCP2 expression in all temporal and spatial aspects. This mouse model may be a valuable tool for studying Rett syndrome and for developing therapies.

A methyl-CpG-binding protein 2-enhanced green fluorescent protein reporter mouse model provides a new tool for studying the neuronal basis of Rett syndrome.

Neural cell adhesion molecules (CAMs) of the immunoglobulin superfamily engage in multiple neuronal interactions that influence cell migration, axonal and dendritic projection, and synaptic targeting. Their downstream signal transduction events specify whether a cell moves or projects axons and dendrites to targets in the brain. Many of the diverse functions of CAMs are brought about through homophilic and heterophilic interactions with other cell surface receptors. An emerging concept is that CAMs act as coreceptors to assist in intracellular signal transduction, and to provide cytoskeletal linkage necessary for cell and growth cone motility. Here we will focus on new discoveries that have revealed novel coreceptor functions for the best-understood CAMs--L1, CHL1, and NCAM--important for neuronal migration and axon guidance. We will also discuss how dysregulation of CAMs may also bear on neuropsychiatric disease and cancer.

L1 and NCAM adhesion molecules as signaling coreceptors in neuronal migration and process outgrowth.

The c-Jun N-terminal kinase (JNK) pathway potentially links together the three major pathological hallmarks of Alzheimer's disease (AD): development of amyloid plaques, neurofibrillary tangles, and brain atrophy. As activation of the JNK pathway has been observed in amyloid models of AD in association with peri-plaque regions and neuritic dystrophy, as we confirm here for Tg2576/PS(M146L) transgenic mice, we directly tested whether JNK inhibition could provide neuroprotection in a novel brain slice model for amyloid precursor protein (APP)-induced neurodegeneration. We found that APP/amyloid beta (Abeta)-induced neurodegeneration is blocked by both small molecule and peptide inhibitors of JNK, and provide evidence that this neuroprotection occurs downstream of APP/Abeta production and processing. Our findings demonstrate that Abeta can induce neurodegeneration, at least in part, through the JNK pathway and suggest that inhibition of JNK may be of therapeutic utility in the treatment of AD.

Inhibition of c-Jun kinase provides neuroprotection in a model of Alzheimer's disease.

A hallmark of many neurodegenerative diseases is accumulation of misfolded proteins within neurons, leading to cellular dysfunction and cell death. Although several mechanisms have been proposed to link protein misfolding to cellular toxicity, the connection remains enigmatic. Here, we report a cell death pathway involving protein disulfide isomerase (PDI), a protein chaperone that catalyzes isomerization, reduction and oxidation of disulfides. Through a small molecule screening approach, we discovered five structurally distinct compounds that prevent apoptosis induced by mutant huntingtin protein. Using modified Huisgen cycloaddition chemistry, we then identified PDI as the molecular target of these small molecules. Expression of polyglutamine-expanded huntingtin exon 1 in PC12 cells caused PDI to accumulate at mitochondrial-associated ER membranes and trigger apoptotic cell death via mitochondrial outer-membrane permeabilization. Inhibiting PDI in rat brain cells suppressed the toxicity of mutant huntingtin exon 1 and Aβ peptides processed from the amyloid precursor protein. This pro-apoptotic function of PDI represents a new mechanism linking protein misfolding and apoptotic cell death.

Inhibitors of protein disulfide isomerase suppress apoptosis induced by misfolded proteins.

Over the last decade, genetically engineered mouse models have been extensively used to dissect the genetic requirements for neoplastic initiation and progression of diffuse gliomas. While these models faithfully recapitulate the histopathological features of human gliomas, comparative genomic analyses are increasingly being utilized to comprehensively assess their fidelity to recently identified molecular subtypes of these tumors. Future progress with these models will rely on incorporating insights not only from oncogenomics studies of cancer, but also from the developmental neuroscience and stem cell biology fields to design accurate and experimentally tractable models for use in translational cancer research, particularly for experimental therapeutics studies of molecularly defined subtypes of gliomas.

Genetically engineered mouse models of diffuse gliomas.

DYRKs (dual specificity, tyrosine phosphorylation regulated kinases) and CLKs (cdc2-like kinases) are implicated in the onset and development of Alzheimer's disease and Down syndrome. The marine sponge alkaloid leucettamine B was recently identified as an inhibitor of DYRKs/CLKs. Synthesis of analogues (leucettines) led to an optimized product, leucettine L41. Leucettines were cocrystallized with DYRK1A, DYRK2, CLK3, PIM1, and GSK-3β. The selectivity of L41 was studied by activity and interaction assays of recombinant kinases and affinity chromatography and competition affinity assays. These approaches revealed unexpected potential secondary targets such as CK2, SLK, and the lipid kinase PIKfyve/Vac14/Fig4. L41 displayed neuroprotective effects on glutamate-induced HT22 cell death. L41 also reduced amyloid precursor protein-induced cell death in cultured rat brain slices. The unusual multitarget selectivity of leucettines may account for their neuroprotective effects. This family of kinase inhibitors deserves further optimization as potential therapeutics against neurodegenerative diseases such as Alzheimer's disease.

Selectivity, cocrystal structures, and neuroprotective properties of leucettines, a family of protein kinase inhibitors derived from the marine sponge alkaloid leucettamine B.

Glioblastoma (GBM) genomes feature recurrent genetic alterations that dysregulate core intracellular signaling pathways, including the G1/S cell cycle checkpoint and the MAPK and PI3K effector arms of receptor tyrosine kinase (RTK) signaling. Elucidation of the phenotypic consequences of activated RTK effectors is required for the design of effective therapeutic and diagnostic strategies.

Article	Year
Role of integrins in the development of the cerebral cortex. Cerebral cortex (New York, N.Y. : 1991)\| PubMed ID: 12571112	2003
Neuregulin 1-erbB2 signaling is required for the establishment of radial glia and their transformation into astrocytes in cerebral cortex. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America\| PubMed ID: 12649319	2003
alpha3beta1 integrin modulates neuronal migration and placement during early stages of cerebral cortical development. Development (Cambridge, England)\| PubMed ID: 15537685	2004
Adhesion molecule L1 stimulates neuronal migration through Vav2-Pak1 signaling. Neuroreport\| PubMed ID: 15597056	2004
Reelin, integrin and DAB1 interactions during embryonic cerebral cortical development. Cerebral cortex (New York, N.Y. : 1991)\| PubMed ID: 15703255	2005
Generation and characterization of brain lipid-binding protein promoter-based transgenic mouse models for the study of radial glia. Glia\| PubMed ID: 16288463	2006
Reinduction of ErbB2 in astrocytes promotes radial glial progenitor identity in adult cerebral cortex. Genes & development\| PubMed ID: 18079173	2007
A methyl-CpG-binding protein 2-enhanced green fluorescent protein reporter mouse model provides a new tool for studying the neuronal basis of Rett syndrome. Neuroreport\| PubMed ID: 18287934	2008
L1 and NCAM adhesion molecules as signaling coreceptors in neuronal migration and process outgrowth. Current opinion in neurobiology\| PubMed ID: 18760361	2008
Inhibition of c-Jun kinase provides neuroprotection in a model of Alzheimer's disease. Neurobiology of disease\| PubMed ID: 20451607	2010
Inhibitors of protein disulfide isomerase suppress apoptosis induced by misfolded proteins. Nature chemical biology\| PubMed ID: 21079601	2010
Genetically engineered mouse models of diffuse gliomas. Brain research bulletin\| PubMed ID: 21684324	2012
Selectivity, cocrystal structures, and neuroprotective properties of leucettines, a family of protein kinase inhibitors derived from the marine sponge alkaloid leucettamine B. Journal of medicinal chemistry\| PubMed ID: 22998443	2012
Cooperativity between MAPK and PI3K signaling activation is required for glioblastoma pathogenesis. Neuro-oncology\| PubMed ID: 23814263	2013

Ralf S. Schmid

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