bioprinting-cellularized-constructs-using-tissue-specific-hydrogel

Bioprinting Cellularized Constructs Using a Tissue-specific Hydrogel Bioink

Bioprinting has emerged as a versatile biofabrication approach for creating tissue engineered organ constructs. These constructs have potential use as ...

Recruitment and proliferation of Thy-1+ oval cells is a hallmark of liver regeneration after 2-acetylaminofluorene (2-AAF)/partial hepatectomy (PHx) in rats. To understand the molecular mechanism underlying this process, we investigated the role of connective tissue growth factor (CTGF), one of the candidate genes differentially expressed in Thy-1+ oval cells, in this liver injury model.

Role of connective tissue growth factor in oval cell response during liver regeneration after 2-AAF/PHx in rats.

Hepatic regeneration is a heterogeneous phenomenon involving several cell populations. Oval cells are considered liver stem cells, a portion of which derive from bone marrow (BM). Recent studies have shown that granulocyte-colony stimulating factor (G-CSF) may be effective in facilitating liver repair. However, it remains unclear if G-CSF acts by mobilizing BM cells, or if it acts locally within the liver microenvironment to facilitate the endogenous restoration program. In the present study, we assessed the involvement of G-CSF during oval cell activation.

Granulocyte-colony stimulating factor promotes liver repair and induces oval cell migration and proliferation in rats.

To date the molecular signals regulating activation, proliferation, and differentiation of hepatic oval cells are not fully understood. The Wnt family is essential in hepatic embryogenesis and implicated in hepatic carcinogenesis. This study elucidates novel findings implicating Wnt1 in directing oval cell differentiation during the rat 2-acetylaminofluorene (2AAF) and 2/3 partial hepatectomy (PHx) liver regeneration model. Proteins of Wnt family members were predominantly localized in pericentral hepatocytes during liver injury, oval cell activation, and hepatocyte regeneration. In addition, Wnt message increased coinciding with the rise in oval cell number, whereas protein levels peaked immediately after the height of oval cell proliferation. Immunohistochemical analysis demonstrated nuclear translocation of beta-catenin within oval cells throughout the 2AAF/PHx protocol. Furthermore, RNA interference was used in vivo to confirm the physiological requirement of Wnt1 during the oval cell induction. Ultimately, inhibition of Wnt1 resulted in failure of oval cells to differentiate into hepatocytes and alternatively induced atypical ductular hyperplasia. Taken together, these data indicate that in vivo exposure to Wnt1 shRNA inhibited rat oval cell liver regeneration. In the absence of Wnt1 signaling, oval cells failed to differentiate into hepatocytes and underwent atypical ductular hyperplasia, exhibiting epithelial metaplasia and mucin production. Furthermore, changes in Wnt1 levels are required for the efficient regeneration of the liver by oval cells during massive hepatic injury.

The role of the Wnt family of secreted proteins in rat oval "stem" cell-based liver regeneration: Wnt1 drives differentiation.

Earlier studies conducted by our laboratory have shown that suppression of transforming growth factor-beta (TGFbeta)-mediated upregulation of connective tissue growth factor (CTGF) by iloprost resulted in a greatly diminished oval cell response to 2-acetylaminofluorene/partial hepatectomy (2AAF/PH) in rats. We hypothesized that this effect is due to decreased activation of hepatic stellate cells. To test this hypothesis, we maintained rats on a diet supplemented with 2% L-cysteine as a means of inhibiting stellate cell activation during the oval cell response to 2AAF/PH. In vitro experiments show that L-cysteine did, indeed, prevent the activation of stellate cells while exerting no direct effect on oval cells. Desmin immunostaining of liver sections from 2AAF/PH animals indicated that maintenance on the L-cysteine diet resulted in an 11.1-fold decrease in the number of activated stellate cells within the periportal zones. The total number of cells proliferating in the periportal zones of livers from animals treated with L-cysteine was drastically reduced. Further analyses showed a greater than fourfold decrease in the magnitude of the oval cell response in animals maintained on the L-cysteine diet as determined by immunostaining for both OV6 and alpha-fetoprotein (AFP). Global liver expression of AFP as measured by real-time PCR was shown to be decreased 4.7-fold in the L-cysteine-treated animals. These data indicate that the activation of hepatic stellate cells is required for an appropriate oval cell response to 2AAF/PH.

Hepatic stellate cells' involvement in progenitor-mediated liver regeneration.

We have developed a method for the decellularization of whole rat livers by perfusion with increasing concentrations of detergents. This procedure resulted in an intact, decellularized organ with an intact liver capsule. These decellularized organs were analyzed by immunohistochemistry, and retained an appropriate distribution of extracellular matrix components. The laminin basement membranes of the liver vasculature also remain intact. These acellular vessel remnants were strong enough to be cannulated, providing a convenient means for the delivery of cells to areas deep within the decellularized organ. Cannulation of the extrahepatic vessel remnants allow for media to be circulated through the decellularized organ. These decellularized livers provide a natural matrix for research in the fields of bio-artificial livers and liver engineering.

Method for the decellularization of intact rat liver.

We have identified a novel protein in bone marrow-derived insulin-producing cells. Here we characterize this protein, hereby named islet homeostasis protein (IHoP), in the pancreatic islet.

Characterization of a novel functional protein in the pancreatic islet: islet homeostasis protein regulation of glucagon synthesis in α cells.

Liver disease affects millions of patients each year. The field of regenerative medicine promises alternative therapeutic approaches, including the potential to bioengineer replacement hepatic tissue. One approach combines cells with acellular scaffolds derived from animal tissue. The goal of this study was to scale up our rodent liver decellularization method to livers of a clinically relevant size. Porcine livers were cannulated via the hepatic artery, then perfused with PBS, followed by successive Triton X-100 and SDS solutions in saline buffer. After several days of rinsing, decellularized liver samples were histologically analyzed. In addition, biopsy specimens of decellularized scaffolds were seeded with hepatoblastoma cells for cytotoxicity testing or implanted s.c. into rodents to investigate scaffold immunogenicity. Histological staining confirmed cellular clearance from pig livers, with removal of nuclei and cytoskeletal components and widespread preservation of structural extracellular molecules. Scanning electron microscopy confirmed preservation of an intact liver capsule, a porous acellular lattice structure with intact vessels and striated basement membrane. Liver scaffolds supported cells over 21 days, and no increased immune response was seen with either allogeneic (rat-into-rat) or xenogeneic (pig-into-rat) transplants over 28 days, compared with sham-operated on controls. These studies demonstrate that successful decellularization of the porcine liver could be achieved with protocols developed for rat livers, yielding nonimmunogenic scaffolds for future hepatic bioengineering studies.

Immunogenicity of decellularized porcine liver for bioengineered hepatic tissue.

Donor shortage remains a continued challenge in liver transplantation. Recent advances in tissue engineering have provided the possibility of creating functional liver tissues as an alternative to donor organ transplantation. Small bioengineered liver constructs have been developed, however a major challenge in achieving functional bioengineered liver in vivo is the establishment of a functional vasculature within the scaffolds. Our overall goal is to bioengineer intact livers, suitable for transplantation, using acellular porcine liver scaffolds. We developed an effective method for reestablishing the vascular network within decellularized liver scaffolds by conjugating anti-endothelial cell antibodies to maximize coverage of the vessel walls with endothelial cells. This procedure resulted in uniform endothelial attachment throughout the liver vasculature extending to the capillary bed of the liver scaffold and greatly reduced platelet adhesion upon blood perfusion in vitro. The re-endothelialized livers, when transplanted to recipient pigs, were able to withstand physiological blood flow and maintained for up to 24 h. This study demonstrates, for the first time, that vascularized bioengineered livers, of clinically relevant size, can be transplanted and maintained in vivo, and represents the first step towards generating engineered livers for transplantation to patients with end-stage liver failure.

Bioengineered transplantable porcine livers with re-endothelialized vasculature.

Liver regeneration: A consequence of complex, well-orchestrated signals.

Tissue engineering and cell based liver therapies have utilized primary hepatocytes with limited success due to the failure of hepatocytes to maintain their phenotype in vitro. In order to overcome this challenge, hyaluronic acid (HA) cell culture substrates were formulated to closely mimic the composition and stiffness of the normal liver cellular microenvironment. The stiffness of the substrate was modulated by adjusting HA hydrogel crosslinking. Additionally, the repertoire of bioactive molecules within the HA substrate was bolstered by supplementation with normal liver extracellular matrix (ECM). Primary human hepatocyte viability and phenotype were determined over a narrow physiologically relevant range of substrate stiffnesses from 600 to 4600Pa in both the presence and absence of liver ECM. Cell attachment, viability, and organization of the actin cytoskeleton improved with increased stiffness up to 4600Pa. These differences were not evident in earlier time points or substrates containing only HA. However, gene expression for the hepatocyte markers hepatocyte nuclear factor 4 alpha (HNF4α) and albumin significantly decreased on the 4600Pa stiffness at day 7 indicating that cells may not have maintained their phenotype long-term at this stiffness. Function, as measured by albumin secretion, varied with both stiffness and time in culture and peaked at day 7 at the 1200Pa stiffness, slightly below the stiffness of normal liver ECM at 3000Pa. Overall, gel stiffness affected primary human hepatocyte cell adhesion, functional marker expression, and morphological characteristics dependent on both the presence of liver ECM in gel substrates and time in culture.

Article	Year
Role of connective tissue growth factor in oval cell response during liver regeneration after 2-AAF/PHx in rats. Gastroenterology\| PubMed ID: 15940639	2005
Granulocyte-colony stimulating factor promotes liver repair and induces oval cell migration and proliferation in rats. Gastroenterology\| PubMed ID: 17681181	2007
The role of the Wnt family of secreted proteins in rat oval "stem" cell-based liver regeneration: Wnt1 drives differentiation. The American journal of pathology\| PubMed ID: 20413689	2010
Hepatic stellate cells' involvement in progenitor-mediated liver regeneration. Laboratory investigation; a journal of technical methods and pathology\| PubMed ID: 20440274	2010
Method for the decellularization of intact rat liver. Organogenesis\| PubMed ID: 20885860	2010
Characterization of a novel functional protein in the pancreatic islet: islet homeostasis protein regulation of glucagon synthesis in α cells. Pancreas\| PubMed ID: 22143342	2012
Immunogenicity of decellularized porcine liver for bioengineered hepatic tissue. The American journal of pathology\| PubMed ID: 23747949	2013
Bioengineered transplantable porcine livers with re-endothelialized vasculature. Biomaterials\| PubMed ID: 25433603	2015
Liver regeneration: A consequence of complex, well-orchestrated signals. Hepatology (Baltimore, Md.)\| PubMed ID: 25953495	2015
Stiffness of hyaluronic acid gels containing liver extracellular matrix supports human hepatocyte function and alters cell morphology. Journal of the mechanical behavior of biomedical materials\| PubMed ID: 26569044	2015

Thomas Shupe

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