measuring-lactase-enzymatic-activity-in-the-teaching-lab

Measuring Lactase Enzymatic Activity in the Teaching Lab

Understanding how enzymes work, and relating this to real life examples, is critical to a wide range of undergraduate degrees in the biological and ...

The enzymatic activity of peptidases must be tightly regulated to prevent uncontrolled hydrolysis of peptide bonds, which could have devastating effects on biological systems. Peptidases are often generated as inactive propeptidases, secreted with endogenous inhibitors, or they are compartmentalized. Propeptidases become active after proteolytic removal of N-terminal activation peptides by other peptidases. Some peptidases only become active towards substrates only at certain pHs, thus confining activity to specific compartments or conditions. This review discusses the different roles proteolysis plays in regulating GPCRs. At the cell-surface, certain GPCRs are regulated by the hydrolytic inactivation of bioactive peptides by membrane-anchored peptidases, which prevent signalling. Conversely, cell-surface peptidases can also generate bioactive peptides, which directly activate GPCRs. Alternatively, cell-surface peptidases activated by GPCRs, can generate bioactive peptides to cause transactivation of receptor tyrosine kinases, thereby promoting signalling. Certain peptidases can signal directly to cells, by cleaving GPCR to initiate intracellular signalling cascades. Intracellular peptidases also regulate GPCRs; lysosomal peptidases destroy GPCRs in lysosomes to permanently terminate signalling and mediate down-regulation; endosomal peptidases cleave internalized peptide agonists to regulate GPCR recycling, resensitization and signalling; and soluble intracellular peptidases also participate in GPCR function by regulating the ubiquitination state of GPCRs, thereby altering GPCR signalling and fate. Although the use of peptidase inhibitors has already brought success in the treatment of diseases such as hypertension, the discovery of new regulatory mechanisms involving proteolysis that control GPCRs may provide additional targets to modulate dysregulated GPCR signalling in disease.

Roles of proteolysis in regulation of GPCR function.

In rat middle cerebral and mesenteric arteries the K(Ca)2.3 component of endothelium-dependent hyperpolarization (EDH) is lost following stimulation of thromboxane (TP) receptors, an effect that may contribute to the endothelial dysfunction associated with cardiovascular disease. In cerebral arteries, K(Ca)2.3 loss is associated with NO synthase inhibition, but is restored if TP receptors are blocked. The Rho/Rho kinase pathway is central for TP signalling and statins indirectly inhibit this pathway. The possibility that Rho kinase inhibition and statins sustain K(Ca)2.3 hyperpolarization was investigated in rat middle cerebral arteries (MCA).

Statins and selective inhibition of Rho kinase protect small conductance calcium-activated potassium channel function (K(Ca)2.3) in cerebral arteries.

G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) are important cell signaling mediators, involved in essential physiological processes. GPCRs respond to a wide variety of ligands from light to large macromolecules, including hormones and small peptides. Unfortunately, mutations and dysregulation of GPCRs that induce a loss of function or alter expression can lead to disorders that are sometimes lethal. Therefore, the expression, trafficking, signaling and desensitization of GPCRs must be tightly regulated by different cellular systems to prevent disease. Although there is substantial knowledge regarding the mechanisms that regulate the desensitization and down-regulation of GPCRs, less is known about the mechanisms that regulate the trafficking and cell-surface expression of newly synthesized GPCRs. More recently, there is accumulating evidence that suggests certain GPCRs are able to interact with specific proteins that can completely change their fate and function. These interactions add on another level of regulation and flexibility between different tissue/cell-types. Here, we review some of the main interacting proteins of GPCRs. A greater understanding of the mechanisms regulating their interactions may lead to the discovery of new drug targets for therapy. 

G protein-coupled receptors: what a difference a 'partner' makes.

A distinct feature of the Toll-like receptor 4 (TLR4) is its ability to trigger both MyD88-dependent and MyD88-independent signalling, culminating in activation of pro-inflammatory NF-κB and/or the antiviral IRF3. Although TLR4 agonists (lipopolysaccharides; LPSs) derived from different bacterial species have different endotoxic activity, the impact of LPS chemotype on the downstream signalling is not fully understood. Notably, different TLR4 agonists exhibit anti-tumoural activity in animal models of glioma, but the underlying molecular mechanisms are largely unknown. Thus, we investigated the impact of LPS chemotype on the signalling events in the human glioma cell line U251. We found that LPS of Escherichia coli origin (LPS) leads to NF-κB-biased downstream signalling compared to Salmonella minnesota-derived LPS (LPS). Exposure of U251 cells to LPS resulted in faster nuclear translocation of the NF-κB subunit p65, higher NF-κB-activity and expression of its targets genes, and higher amount of secreted IL-6 compared to LPS. Using super-resolution microscopy we showed that the biased agonism of TLR4 in glioma cells is neither a result of differential regulation of receptor density nor of formation of higher order oligomers. Consistent with previous reports, LPS-mediated NF-κB activation led to significantly increased U251 proliferation, whereas LPS-induced IRF3 activity negatively influenced their invasiveness. Finally, treatment with methyl-β-cyclodextrin (MCD) selectively increased LPS-induced nuclear translocation of p65 and NF-κB activity without affecting IRF3. Our data may explain how TLR4 agonists differently affect glioma cell proliferation and migration.

Biased signalling is an essential feature of TLR4 in glioma cells.

Aberrant activation of the transcription factor NF-B, as well as uncontrolled inflammation, has been linked to autoimmune diseases, development and progression of cancer, and neurological disorders like Alzheimer's disease. Reporter cell lines are a valuable state-of-the art tool for comparative analysis of in vitro drug screening. However, a reporter cell line for the investigation of NF-B-driven neuroinflammation has not been available. Thus, we developed a stable neural NF-B-reporter cell line to assess the potency of proinflammatory molecules and peptides, as well as anti-inflammatory pharmaceuticals. We used lentivirus to transduce the glioma cell line U251-MG with a tandem NF-B reporter construct containing GFP and  luciferase allowing an assessment of NF-B activity via fluorescence microscopy, flow cytometry, and luminometry. We observed a robust activation of NF-B after exposure of the reporter cell line to tumour necrosis factor alpha (TNF) and amyloid- peptide [1-42] as well as to LPS derived from  and . Finally, we demonstrate that the U251-NF-B-GFP-Luc reporter cells can be used for assessing the anti-inflammatory potential of pharmaceutical compounds using Bay11-7082 and IMD0354. In summary, our newly generated cell line is a robust and cost-efficient tool to study pro- and anti-inflammatory potential of drugs and biologics in neural cells.

Development and Characterisation of a Novel NF-B Reporter Cell Line for Investigation of Neuroinflammation.

Calcitonin receptor-like receptor (CLR) and the receptor activity-modifying protein 2 (RAMP2) comprise a receptor for adrenomedullin (AM). Although it is known that AM induces internalization of CLR•RAMP2, little is known about the molecular mechanisms that regulate the trafficking of CLR•RAMP2. Using HEK and HMEC-1 cells, we observed that AM-induced activation of CLR•RAMP2 promoted ubiquitination of CLR. A mutant (CLRΔ9KR), lacking all intracellular lysine residues was functional and trafficked similar to the wild-type receptor, but was not ubiquitinated. Degradation of CLR•RAMP2 and CLRΔ9KR•RAMP2 was not dependent on the duration of AM stimulation or ubiquitination and occurred via a mechanism that was partially prevented by peptidase inhibitors. Degradation of CLR•RAMP2 was sensitive to overexpression of hepatocyte growth factor-regulated tyrosine kinase substrate (HRS), but not to HRS knockdown, whereas CLRΔ9KR•RAMP2 degradation was unaffected. Overexpression, but not knockdown of HRS, promoted hyperubiquitination of CLR under basal conditions. Thus, we propose a role for ubiquitin and HRS in the regulation of AM-induced degradation of CLR•RAMP2.

The Role of Ubiquitination and Hepatocyte Growth Factor-Regulated Tyrosine Kinase Substrate in the Degradation of the Adrenomedullin Type I Receptor.

In humans, invading pathogens are recognized by Toll-like receptors (TLRs). Upon recognition of lipopolysaccharide (LPS) derived from the cell wall of Gram-negative bacteria, TLR4 dimerizes and can stimulate two different signaling pathways, the proinflammatory, MyD88-dependent pathway and the antiviral, MyD88-independent pathway. The balance between these two pathways is ligand-dependent, and ligand composition determines whether the invading pathogen activates or evades the host immune response. We investigated the dimerization behavior of TLR4 in intact cells in response to different LPS chemotypes through quantitative single-molecule localization microscopy. Quantitative superresolved data showed that TLR4 was monomeric in the absence of its co-receptors MD2 and CD14 in transfected HEK 293 cells. When TLR4 was present together with MD2 and CD14 but in the absence of LPS, 52% of the receptors were monomeric and 48% were dimeric. LPS from  or  caused the formation of dimeric TLR4 complexes, whereas the antagonistic LPS chemotype from  maintained TLR4 in monomeric form at the cell surface. Furthermore, we showed that LPS-dependent dimerization was required for the activation of NF-κB signaling. Together, these data demonstrate ligand-dependent dimerization of TLR4 in the cellular environment, which could pave the way for a molecular understanding of biased signaling downstream of the receptor.

Quantitative single-molecule imaging of TLR4 reveals ligand-specific receptor dimerization.

Increasing evidence suggests that the omega-3 polyunsaturated acids (n-3 PUFA), docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) and eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA), are beneficial to cardiovascular health, promoting relaxation of vascular smooth muscle cells and vasodilation. Numerous studies have attempted to study these responses, but to date there has not been a systematic characterisation of both DHA and EPA mediated vasodilation in conduit and resistance arteries. Therefore, we aimed to fully characterise the n-3 PUFA-induced vasodilation pathways in rat aorta and mesenteric artery.

Characterisation of the vasodilation effects of DHA and EPA, n-3 PUFAs (fish oils), in rat aorta and mesenteric resistance arteries.

The Embden-Meyerhof-Parnas (EMP) pathway comprises eleven cytosolic enzymes interacting to metabolize glucose to lactic acid [CHCH(OH)COO]. Glycolysis is largely considered as the conversion of glucose to pyruvate (CHCOCOO). We consider glycolysis to be a cellular process and as such, transporters mediating glucose uptake and lactic acid release and enable the flow of metabolites through the cell, must be considered as part of the EMP pathway. In this review, we consider the flow of metabolites to be coupled to a flow of energy that is irreversible and sufficient to form ordered structures. This latter principle is highlighted by discussing that lactate dehydrogenase (LDH) complexes irreversibly reduce pyruvate/H to lactate [CHCH(OH)COO], or irreversibly catalyze the opposite reaction, oxidation of lactate to pyruvate/H. However, both LDH complexes are considered to be driven by postulated proton transport chains. Metabolism of glucose to two lactic acids is introduced as a unidirectional, continuously flowing pathway. In an organism, cell membrane-located proton-linked monocarboxylate transporters catalyze the final step of glycolysis, the release of lactic acid. Consequently, both pyruvate and lactate are discussed as intermediate products of glycolysis and substrates of regulated crosscuts of the glycolytic flow.

Article	Year
Roles of proteolysis in regulation of GPCR function. British journal of pharmacology\| PubMed ID: 23043558	2013
Statins and selective inhibition of Rho kinase protect small conductance calcium-activated potassium channel function (K(Ca)2.3) in cerebral arteries. PloS one\| PubMed ID: 23056429	2012
G protein-coupled receptors: what a difference a 'partner' makes. International journal of molecular sciences\| PubMed ID: 24441568	2014
Biased signalling is an essential feature of TLR4 in glioma cells. Biochimica et biophysica acta\| PubMed ID: 27669113	2016
Development and Characterisation of a Novel NF-B Reporter Cell Line for Investigation of Neuroinflammation. Mediators of inflammation\| PubMed ID: 28790798	2017
The Role of Ubiquitination and Hepatocyte Growth Factor-Regulated Tyrosine Kinase Substrate in the Degradation of the Adrenomedullin Type I Receptor. Scientific reports\| PubMed ID: 28959041	2017
Quantitative single-molecule imaging of TLR4 reveals ligand-specific receptor dimerization. Science signaling\| PubMed ID: 29089449	2017
Characterisation of the vasodilation effects of DHA and EPA, n-3 PUFAs (fish oils), in rat aorta and mesenteric resistance arteries. PloS one\| PubMed ID: 29394279	2018
Proton Transport Chains in Glucose Metabolism: Mind the Proton. Frontiers in neuroscience\| PubMed ID: 29962930	2018

Graeme Cottrell

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