focal-macropatch-recordings-synaptic-currents-from-drosophila-larval

Focal Macropatch Recordings of Synaptic Currents from the <em>Drosophila</em> Larval Neuromuscular Junction

Drosophila neuromuscular junction (NMJ) is an excellent model system to study glutamatergic synaptic transmission. We describe the technique of focal ...

SNARE complexes form between the synaptic vesicle protein synaptobrevin and the plasma membrane proteins syntaxin and SNAP25 to drive membrane fusion. A cytosolic protein, complexin (Cpx), binds to the SNARE bundle, and its accessory helix (AH) functions to clamp synaptic vesicle fusion. We performed molecular-dynamics simulations of the SNARE/Cpx complex and discovered that at equilibrium the Cpx AH forms tight links with both synaptobrevin and SNAP25. To simulate the effect of electrostatic repulsion between vesicle and membrane on the SNARE complex, we calculated the electrostatic force and performed simulations with an external force applied to synaptobrevin. We found that the partially unzipped state of the SNARE bundle can be stabilized by interactions with the Cpx AH, suggesting a simple mechanistic explanation for the role of Cpx in fusion clamping. To test this model, we performed experimental and computational characterizations of the syx(3-69)Drosophila mutant, which has a point mutation in syntaxin that causes increased spontaneous fusion. We found that this mutation disrupts the interaction of the Cpx AH with synaptobrevin, partially imitating the cpx null phenotype. Our results support a model in which the Cpx AH clamps fusion by binding to the synaptobrevin C-terminus, thus preventing full SNARE zippering.

Interaction of the complexin accessory helix with the C-terminus of the SNARE complex: molecular-dynamics model of the fusion clamp.

Patterned depolarization of Drosophila motor neurons can rapidly induce the outgrowth of new synaptic boutons at the larval neuromuscular junction (NMJ), providing a model system to investigate mechanisms underlying acute structural plasticity. Correlative light and electron microscopy analysis revealed that new boutons typically form near the edge of postsynaptic reticulums of presynaptic boutons. Unlike mature boutons, new varicosities have synaptic vesicles which are distributed uniformly throughout the bouton and undeveloped postsynaptic specializations. To characterize the presynaptic mechanisms mediating new synaptic growth induced by patterned activity, we investigated the formation of new boutons in NMJs lacking synapsin [Syn(-)], a synaptic protein important for vesicle clustering, neurodevelopment, and plasticity. We found that budding of new boutons at Syn(-) NMJs was significantly diminished, and that new boutons in Syn(-) preparations were smaller and had reduced synaptic vesicle density. Since synapsin is a target of protein kinase A (PKA), we assayed whether activity-dependent synaptic growth is regulated via a cAMP/PKA/synapsin pathway. We pretreated preparations with forskolin to raise cAMP levels and found this manipulation significantly enhanced activity-dependent synaptic growth in control but not Syn(-) preparations. To examine the trafficking of synapsin during synaptic growth, we generated transgenic animals expressing fluorescently tagged synapsin. Fluorescence recovery after photobleaching analysis revealed that patterned depolarization promoted synapsin movement between boutons. During new synaptic bouton formation, synapsin redistributed upon stimulation toward the sites of varicosity outgrowth. These findings support a model whereby synapsin accumulates at sites of synaptic growth and facilitates budding of new boutons via a cAMP/PKA-dependent pathway.

Synapsin regulates activity-dependent outgrowth of synaptic boutons at the Drosophila neuromuscular junction.

Neuronal transmitters are released from nerve terminals via the fusion of synaptic vesicles with the plasma membrane. Vesicles attach to membranes via a specialized protein machinery composed of membrane-attached (t-SNARE) and vesicle-attached (v-SNARE) proteins that zipper together to form a coiled-coil SNARE bundle that brings the two fusing membranes into close proximity. Neurotransmitter release may occur either in response to an action potential or through spontaneous fusion. A cytosolic protein, Complexin (Cpx), binds the SNARE complex and restricts spontaneous exocytosis by acting as a fusion clamp. We previously proposed a model in which the interaction between Cpx and the v-SNARE serves as a spring to prevent premature zippering of the SNARE complex, thereby reducing the likelihood of fusion. To test this model, we combined molecular-dynamics (MD) simulations and site-directed mutagenesis of Cpx and SNAREs in Drosophila. MD simulations of the Drosophila Cpx-SNARE complex demonstrated that Cpx's interaction with the v-SNARE promotes unraveling of the v-SNARE off the core SNARE bundle. We investigated clamping properties in the syx(3-69) paralytic mutant, which has a single-point mutation in the t-SNARE and displays enhanced spontaneous release. MD simulations demonstrated an altered interaction of Cpx with the SNARE bundle that hindered v-SNARE unraveling by Cpx, thus compromising clamping. We used our model to predict mutations that should enhance the ability of Cpx to prevent full assembly of the SNARE complex. MD simulations predicted that a weakened interaction between the Cpx accessory helix and the v-SNARE would enhance Cpx flexibility and thus promote separation of SNAREs, reducing spontaneous fusion. We generated transgenic Drosophila with mutations in Cpx and the v-SNARE that disrupted a salt bridge between these two proteins. As predicted, both lines demonstrated a selective inhibition in spontaneous release, suggesting that Cpx acts as a fusion clamp that restricts full SNARE zippering.

Interaction of the Complexin Accessory Helix with Synaptobrevin Regulates Spontaneous Fusion.

Synaptic vesicles fuse at morphological specializations in the presynaptic terminal termed active zones (AZs). Vesicle fusion can occur spontaneously or in response to an action potential. Following fusion, vesicles are retrieved and recycled within nerve terminals. It is still unclear whether vesicles that fuse spontaneously or following evoked release share similar recycling mechanisms. Genetic deletion of the SNARE-binding protein complexin dramatically increases spontaneous fusion, with the protein serving as the synaptic vesicle fusion clamp at Drosophila synapses. We examined synaptic vesicle recycling pathways at complexin null neuromuscular junctions, where spontaneous release is dramatically enhanced. We combined loading of the lipophilic dye FM1-43 with photoconversion, electron microscopy, and electrophysiology to monitor evoked and spontaneous recycling vesicle pools. We found that the total number of recycling vesicles was equal to those retrieved through spontaneous and evoked pools, suggesting that retrieval following fusion is partially segregated for spontaneous and evoked release. In addition, the kinetics of FM1-43 destaining and synaptic depression measured in the presence of the vesicle-refilling blocker bafilomycin indicated that spontaneous and evoked recycling pools partially intermix during the release process. Finally, FM1-43 photoconversion combined with electron microscopy analysis indicated that spontaneous recycling preferentially involves synaptic vesicles in the vicinity of AZs, whereas vesicles recycled following evoked release involve a larger intraterminal pool. Together, these results suggest that spontaneous and evoked vesicles use separable recycling pathways and then partially intermix during subsequent rounds of fusion.

Complexin Mutants Reveal Partial Segregation between Recycling Pathways That Drive Evoked and Spontaneous Neurotransmission.

Synaptic transmission is dynamic, plastic, and highly regulated. Drosophila is an advantageous model system for genetic and molecular studies of presynaptic and postsynaptic mechanisms and plasticity. Electrical recordings of synaptic responses represent a wide-spread approach to study neuronal signaling and synaptic transmission. We discuss experimental techniques that allow monitoring synaptic transmission in Drosophila neuromuscular and central systems. Recordings of synaptic potentials or currents at the larval neuromuscular junction (NMJ) are most common and provide numerous technical advantages due to robustness of the preparation, large and identifiable muscles, and synaptic boutons which can be readily visualized. In particular, focal macropatch recordings combined with the analysis of neurosecretory quanta enable rigorous quantification of the magnitude and kinetics of transmitter release. Patch-clamp recordings of synaptic transmission from the embryonic NMJ enable overcoming the problem of lethality in mutant lines. Recordings from the adult NMJ proved instrumental in the studies of temperature-sensitive paralytic mutants. Genetic studies of behavioral learning in Drosophila compel an investigation of synaptic transmission in the central nervous system (CNS), including primary cultured neurons and an intact brain. Cholinergic and GABAergic synaptic transmission has been recorded from the Drosophila CNS both in vitro and in vivo. In vivo patch-clamp recordings of synaptic transmission from the neurons in the olfactory pathway is a very powerful approach, which has a potential to elucidate how synaptic transmission is associated with behavioral learning. WIREs Dev Biol 2017, 6:e277. doi: 10.1002/wdev.277 For further resources related to this article, please visit the WIREs website.

Article	Year
Interaction of the complexin accessory helix with the C-terminus of the SNARE complex: molecular-dynamics model of the fusion clamp. Biophysical journal\| PubMed ID: 23931316	2013
Synapsin regulates activity-dependent outgrowth of synaptic boutons at the Drosophila neuromuscular junction. The Journal of neuroscience : the official journal of the Society for Neuroscience\| PubMed ID: 25100589	2014
Interaction of the Complexin Accessory Helix with Synaptobrevin Regulates Spontaneous Fusion. Biophysical journal\| PubMed ID: 27806277	2016
Complexin Mutants Reveal Partial Segregation between Recycling Pathways That Drive Evoked and Spontaneous Neurotransmission. The Journal of neuroscience : the official journal of the Society for Neuroscience\| PubMed ID: 28077717	2017
Electrophysiological analysis of synaptic transmission in Drosophila. Wiley interdisciplinary reviews. Developmental biology\| PubMed ID: 28544556	2017

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