conducting-multiple-imaging-modes-with-one-fluorescence-microscope

Conducting Multiple Imaging Modes with One Fluorescence Microscope

Fluorescence microscopy is a powerful tool to detect biological molecules in situ and monitor their dynamics and interactions in real-time. In addition to ...

Hundreds of small RNAs (sRNAs) have been identified in diverse bacterial species, and while the functions of most remain unknown, some regulate key processes, particularly stress responses. The sRNA DicF was identified over 25 years ago as an inhibitor of cell division but since then has remained uncharacterized. DicF consists of 53 nucleotides and is encoded by a gene carried on a prophage (Qin) in the genomes of many  strains We demonstrated that DicF inhibits cell division via direct base pairing with  mRNA to repress translation and prevent new synthesis of the bacterial tubulin homolog FtsZ. Systems analysis using computational and experimental methods identified additional mRNA targets of DicF:  and  mRNAs, encoding the xylose uptake and catabolism regulator and pyruvate kinase, respectively. Genetic analyses showed that DicF directly base pairs with and represses translation of these targets. Phenotypes of cells expressing DicF variants demonstrated that DicF-associated growth inhibition is not solely due to repression of , indicating that the physiological consequences of DicF-mediated regulation extend beyond effects on cell division caused by reduced FtsZ synthesis.  sRNAs are ubiquitous and versatile regulators of bacterial gene expression. A number of well-characterized examples in  are highly conserved and present in the  core genome. In contrast, the sRNA DicF (identified over 20 years ago but remaining poorly characterized) is encoded by a gene carried on a defective prophage element in many  genomes. Here, we characterize DicF in order to better understand how horizontally acquired sRNA regulators impact bacterial gene expression and physiology. Our data confirm the long-hypothesized DicF-mediated regulation of , encoding the bacterial tubulin homolog required for cell division. We further uncover DicF-mediated posttranscriptional control of metabolic gene expression. Ectopic production of DicF is highly toxic to  cells, but the toxicity is not attributable to DicF regulation of  Further work is needed to reveal the biological roles of and benefits for the host conferred by DicF and other products encoded by defective prophages.

A Prophage-Encoded Small RNA Controls Metabolism and Cell Division in .

The bacterial small RNA (sRNA) SgrS has been a fruitful model for discovery of novel RNA-based regulatory mechanisms and new facets of bacterial physiology and metabolism. SgrS is one of only a few characterized dual-function sRNAs. SgrS can control gene expression posttranscriptionally via sRNA-mRNA base-pairing interactions. Its second function is coding for the small protein SgrT. Previous work demonstrated that both functions contribute to relief of growth inhibition caused by glucose-phosphate stress, a condition characterized by disrupted glycolytic flux and accumulation of sugar phosphates. The base-pairing activity of SgrS has been the subject of numerous studies, but the activity of SgrT is less well characterized. Here, we provide evidence that SgrT acts to specifically inhibit the transport activity of the major glucose permease PtsG. Superresolution microscopy demonstrated that SgrT localizes to the cell membrane in a PtsG-dependent manner. Mutational analysis determined that residues in the N-terminal domain of PtsG are important for conferring sensitivity to SgrT-mediated inhibition of transport activity. Growth assays support a model in which SgrT-mediated inhibition of PtsG transport activity reduces accumulation of nonmetabolizable sugar phosphates and promotes utilization of alternative carbon sources by modulating carbon catabolite repression. The results of this study expand our understanding of a basic and well-studied biological problem, namely, how cells coordinate carbohydrate transport and metabolism. Further, this work highlights the complex activities that can be carried out by sRNAs and small proteins in bacteria. Sequencing, annotation and investigation of hundreds of bacterial genomes have identified vast numbers of small RNAs and small proteins, the majority of which have no known function. In this study, we explore the function of a small protein that acts in tandem with a well-characterized small RNA during metabolic stress to help bacterial cells maintain balanced metabolism and continue growing. Our results indicate that this protein acts on the glucose transport system, inhibiting its activity under stress conditions in order to allow cells to utilize alternative carbon sources. This work sheds new light on a key biological problem: how cells coordinate carbohydrate transport and metabolism. The study also expands our understanding of the functional capacities of small proteins.

The Small Protein SgrT Controls Transport Activity of the Glucose-Specific Phosphotransferase System.

We report a robust nonparametric descriptor, J'(r), for quantifying the density of clustering molecules in single-molecule localization microscopy. J'(r), based on nearest neighbor distribution functions, does not require any parameter as an input for analyzing point patterns. We show that J'(r) displays a valley shape in the presence of clusters of molecules, and the characteristics of the valley reliably report the clustering features in the data. Most importantly, the position of the J'(r) valley ([Formula: see text]) depends exclusively on the density of clustering molecules (ρc). Therefore, it is ideal for direct estimation of the clustering density of molecules in single-molecule localization microscopy. As an example, this descriptor was applied to estimate the clustering density of ptsG mRNA in E. coli bacteria.

Robust nonparametric quantification of clustering density of molecules in single-molecule localization microscopy.

Single-cell fluorescence imaging is a powerful technique for studying inherently heterogeneous biological processes. To correlate a genotype or phenotype to a specific cell, images containing a population of cells must first be properly segmented. However, a proper segmentation with minimal user input becomes challenging when cells are clustered or overlapping in three dimensions. We introduce a new analysis package, Seg-3D, for the segmentation of bacterial cells in three-dimensional (3D) images, based on local thresholding, shape analysis, concavity-based cluster splitting, and morphology-based 3D reconstruction. The reconstructed cell volumes allow us to directly quantify the fluorescent signals from biomolecules of interest within individual cells. We demonstrate the application of this analysis package in 3D segmentation of individual bacterial pathogens invading host cells. We believe Seg-3D can be an efficient and simple program that can be used to analyze a wide variety of single-cell images, especially for biological systems involving random 3D orientation and clustering behavior, such as bacterial infection or colonization.

An Automated Image Analysis Method for Segmenting Fluorescent Bacteria in Three Dimensions.

Nuclear speckles are self-assembled organelles composed of RNAs and proteins. They are proposed to act as structural domains that control distinct steps in gene expression, including transcription, splicing and mRNA export. Earlier studies identified differential localization of a few components within the speckles. It was speculated that the spatial organization of speckle components might contribute directly to the order of operations that coordinate distinct processes. Here, by performing multi-color structured illumination microscopy, we characterized the multilayer organization of speckles at a higher resolution. We found that SON and SC35 (also known as SRSF2) localize to the central region of the speckle, whereas  and small nuclear (sn)RNAs are enriched at the speckle periphery. Coarse-grained simulations indicate that the non-random organization arises due to the interplay between favorable sequence-encoded intermolecular interactions of speckle-resident proteins and RNAs. Finally, we observe positive correlation between the total amount of RNA present within a speckle and the speckle size. These results imply that speckle size may be regulated to accommodate RNA accumulation and processing. Accumulation of RNA from various actively transcribed speckle-associated genes could contribute to the observed speckle size variations within a single cell.

Quantitative analysis of multilayer organization of proteins and RNA in nuclear speckles at super resolution.

We present a method for the quantification of small regulatory RNAs (sRNAs) in bacteria, by combining single-molecule fluorescence in situ hybridization (smFISH), super-resolved single-fluorophore microscopy, and clustering analysis. Compared to smFISH imaging with diffraction-limited fluorescence microscopy, our method provides better quantification for short and abundant RNA (such as sRNAs) in a small volume of bacterial cells. Our method can also be directly used for the quantification of messenger RNAs (mRNAs).

Quantitative Super-Resolution Imaging of Small RNAs in Bacterial Cells.

Cas9 (from Streptococcus pyogenes) in complex with a guide RNA targets complementary DNA for cleavage. Here, we developed a single-molecule FRET analysis to study the mechanisms of specificity enhancement of two engineered Cas9s (eCas9 and Cas9-HF1). A DNA-unwinding assay showed that mismatches affect cleavage reactions through rebalancing the unwinding-rewinding equilibrium. Increasing PAM-distal mismatches facilitates rewinding, and the associated cleavage impairment shows that cleavage proceeds from the unwound state. Engineered Cas9s depopulate the unwound state more readily with mismatches. The intrinsic cleavage rate is much lower for engineered Cas9s, preventing cleavage from transiently unwound off-targets. Engineered Cas9s require approximately one additional base pair match for stable binding, freeing them from sites that would otherwise sequester them. Therefore, engineered Cas9s achieve their improved specificity by inhibiting stable DNA binding to partially matching sequences, making DNA unwinding more sensitive to mismatches and slowing down the intrinsic cleavage reaction.

Mechanisms of improved specificity of engineered Cas9s revealed by single-molecule FRET analysis.

Diverse mechanisms and functions of posttranscriptional regulation by small regulatory RNAs and RNA-binding proteins have been described in bacteria. In contrast, little is known about the spatial organization of RNAs in bacterial cells. In eukaryotes, subcellular localization and transport of RNAs play important roles in diverse physiological processes, such as embryonic patterning, asymmetric cell division, epithelial polarity, and neuronal plasticity. It is now clear that bacterial RNAs also can accumulate at distinct sites in the cell. However, due to the small size of bacterial cells, RNA localization and localization-associated functions are more challenging to study in bacterial cells, and the underlying molecular mechanisms of transcript localization are less understood. Here, we review the emerging examples of RNAs localized to specific subcellular locations in bacteria, with indications that subcellular localization of transcripts might be important for gene expression and regulatory processes. Diverse mechanisms for bacterial RNA localization have been suggested, including close association to their genomic site of transcription, or to the localizations of their protein products in translation-dependent or -independent processes. We also provide an overview of the state of the art of technologies to visualize and track bacterial RNAs, ranging from hybridization-based approaches in fixed cells to  imaging approaches using fluorescent protein reporters and/or RNA aptamers in single living bacterial cells. We conclude with a discussion of open questions in the field and ongoing technological developments regarding RNA imaging in eukaryotic systems that might likewise provide novel insights into RNA localization in bacteria.

RNA Localization in Bacteria.

T-box riboswitches are -regulatory RNA elements that regulate the expression of proteins involved in amino acid biosynthesis and transport by binding to specific tRNAs and sensing their aminoacylation state. While the T-box modular structural elements that recognize different parts of a tRNA have been identified, the kinetic trajectory describing how these interactions are established temporally remains unclear. Using smFRET, we demonstrate that tRNA binds to the riboswitch in two steps, first anticodon recognition followed by the sensing of the 3' NCCA end, with the second step accompanied by a T-box riboswitch conformational change. Studies on site-specific mutants highlight that specific T-box structural elements drive the two-step binding process in a modular fashion. Our results set up a kinetic framework describing tRNA binding by T-box riboswitches, and suggest such binding mechanism is kinetically beneficial for efficient, co-transcriptional recognition of the cognate tRNA ligand.

Article	Year
A Prophage-Encoded Small RNA Controls Metabolism and Cell Division in . mSystems\| PubMed ID: 27822514	2016
The Small Protein SgrT Controls Transport Activity of the Glucose-Specific Phosphotransferase System. Journal of bacteriology\| PubMed ID: 28289085	2017
Robust nonparametric quantification of clustering density of molecules in single-molecule localization microscopy. PloS one\| PubMed ID: 28636661	2017
An Automated Image Analysis Method for Segmenting Fluorescent Bacteria in Three Dimensions. Biochemistry\| PubMed ID: 29083867	2018
Quantitative analysis of multilayer organization of proteins and RNA in nuclear speckles at super resolution. Journal of cell science\| PubMed ID: 29133588	2017
Quantitative Super-Resolution Imaging of Small RNAs in Bacterial Cells. Methods in molecular biology (Clifton, N.J.)\| PubMed ID: 29484595	2018
Mechanisms of improved specificity of engineered Cas9s revealed by single-molecule FRET analysis. Nature structural & molecular biology\| PubMed ID: 29622787	2018
RNA Localization in Bacteria. Microbiology spectrum\| PubMed ID: 30191804	2018
Specific structural elements of the T-box riboswitch drive the two-step binding of the tRNA ligand. eLife\| PubMed ID: 30251626	2018

Jingyi Fei

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