perfusion-and-inflation-of-the-mouse-lung-for-tumor-histology

Perfusion and Inflation of the Mouse Lung for Tumor Histology

The ability to evaluate lung histology is critical for the fields of lung cancer research and cancer metastasis. It is equally important to perform ...

Clinical studies evaluating the mRNA expression level of the BRMS1 metastasis suppressor in the progression of breast cancer have not been consistent. The purpose of this study was to characterize endogenous BRMS1 mRNA and protein in a model of the progression of breast cancer. BRMS1 protein expression was evaluated in the genetically related MCF10 cell lines representing 'normal' breast epithelial cells (MCF10A), pre-malignant breast disease (MCF10AT), comedo ductal carcinoma in situ (MCF10DCIS.com), and metastatic carcinoma (MCF10CAa.1 and MCF10CAd.1alpha) with two antibodies that recognize distinct epitopes in the BRMS1 protein. Nuclear expression of the characteristic *35 kDa BRMS1 protein was detected in all cell lines. Because BRMS1 was expressed in the metastatic MCF10 variants, the BRMS1 exons were sequenced to scan for possible genetic mutations. BRMS1 was wild-type with the exception of a synonymous T/C transition in exon 7. However, alternatively spliced variants were detected by RT-PCR. Two variants, BRMS1.v2 and BRMS1.v4 were only detected in the MCF10A and AT cell lines, while BRMS1 and BRMS1.v3 were detected in all lines. These results demonstrate that expression of the characteristic *35 kDa BRMS1 protein is not sufficient to prevent metastasis. The differential expression of alternative splice variants suggests caution should be taken when evaluating BRMS1 mRNA in clinical samples.

Multiple forms of BRMS1 are differentially expressed in the MCF10 isogenic breast cancer progression model.

Breast cancer metastasis suppressor 1 (BRMS1) is a predominantly nuclear protein that differentially regulates expression of multiple genes, leading to suppression of metastasis without blocking orthotopic tumor growth in multiple human and murine cancer cells of diverse origins. We hypothesized that miR-146 may be involved in the ability of BRMS1 to supress metastasis because miR-146 expression is altered by BRMS1 and because BRMS1 and miR-146 are both associated with decreased signaling through the nuclear factor-kappaB pathway. BRMS1 significantly up-regulates miR-146a by 6- to 60-fold in metastatic MDA-MB-231 and MDA-MB-435 cells, respectively, and miR-146b by 40-fold in MDA-MB-435 as measured by real-time quantitative reverse transcription-PCR. Transduction of miR-146a or miR-146b into MDA-MB-231 down-regulated expression of epidermal growth factor receptor, inhibited invasion and migration in vitro, and suppressed experimental lung metastasis by 69% and 84%, respectively (mean +/- SE: empty vector = 39 +/- 6, miR-146a = 12 +/- 1, miR-146b = 6 +/- 1). These results further support the recent notion that modulating the levels of miR-146a or miR-146b could have a therapeutic potential to suppress breast cancer metastasis.

Breast cancer metastasis suppressor 1 up-regulates miR-146, which suppresses breast cancer metastasis.

Breast cancer metastasis suppressor 1 (BRMS1) suppresses metastasis of multiple tumor types without blocking tumorigenesis. BRMS1 forms complexes with SIN3, histone deacetylases and selected transcription factors that modify metastasis-associated gene expression (e.g., EGFR, OPN, PI4P5K1A, PLAU). microRNA (miRNA) are a recently discovered class of regulatory, noncoding RNA, some of which are involved in neoplastic progression. Based on these data, we hypothesized that BRMS1 may also exert some of its antimetastatic effects by regulating miRNA expression. MicroRNA arrays were done comparing small RNAs that were purified from metastatic MDA-MB-231 and MDA-MB-435 and their nonmetastatic BRMS1-transfected counterparts. miRNA expression changed by BRMS1 were validated using SYBR Green RT-PCR. BRMS1 decreased metastasis-promoting (miR-10b, -373 and -520c) miRNA, with corresponding reduction of their downstream targets (e.g., RhoC which is downstream of miR-10b). Concurrently, BRMS1 increased expression of metastasis suppressing miRNA (miR-146a, -146b and -335). Collectively, these data show that BRMS1 coordinately regulates expression of multiple metastasis-associated miRNA and suggests that recruitment of BRMS1-containing SIN3:HDAC complexes to, as yet undefined, miRNA promoters might be involved in the regulation of cancer metastasis.

Breast cancer metastasis suppressor 1 coordinately regulates metastasis-associated microRNA expression.

To determine breast cancer metastasis suppressor 1 (BRMS1) expression in breast cancers and the efficacy of BRMS1 as a prognostic indicator, BRMS1 expression was assessed in two sets of breast cancer tissues.

A shift from nuclear to cytoplasmic breast cancer metastasis suppressor 1 expression is associated with highly proliferative estrogen receptor-negative breast cancers.

Linking metastasis suppression with metastamiR regulation.

Despite advancements in knowledge from more than a century of metastasis research, the genetic programs and molecular mechanisms required for cancer metastasis are still incompletely understood. Genes that specifically regulate the process of metastasis are useful tools to elucidate molecular mechanisms and may become markers and/or targets for antimetastatic therapy. Recently, several noncoding regulatory RNA genes, microRNA (miRNA), were identified, which play roles in various steps of metastasis, some without obvious roles in tumorigenesis. Understanding how these metastasis-associated miRNA, which we term metastamir, are involved in metastasis will help identify possible biomarkers or targets for the most lethal attribute of cancer: metastasis.

Metastamir: the field of metastasis-regulatory microRNA is spreading.

Gap junctional intercellular communication (GJIC) regulates cellular homeostasis by propagating signaling molecules, exchanging cellular metabolites, and coupling electrical signals. In cancer, cells exhibit altered rates of GJIC which may play a role in neoplastic progression. K(ATP) channels help maintain membrane polarity and linkages between K(ATP) channel activity and rates of GJIC have been established. The mechanistic relationship has not been fully elucidated. We report the effects of treatment with multiple K(ATP) antagonist compounds on GJIC in metastatic cell lines demonstrating an increase in communication rates following treatment with compounds possessing specificities towards the SUR2 subunit of K(ATP). These effects remained consistent using cell lines with different expression levels of SUR1 and SUR2, suggesting possible off target effects on GJIC by these compounds.

Subsets of ATP-sensitive potassium channel (KATP) inhibitors increase gap junctional intercellular communication in metastatic cancer cell lines independent of SUR expression.

Morbidity and mortality of breast cancer patients are drastically increased when primary tumor cells are able to spread to distant sites and proliferate to become secondary lesions. Effective treatment of metastatic disease has been limited; therefore, an increased molecular understanding to identify biomarkers and therapeutic targets is needed. Breast cancer metastasis suppressor 1 (BRMS1) suppresses development of pulmonary metastases when expressed in a variety of cancer types, including metastatic mammary carcinoma. Little is known of Brms1 function throughout the initiation and progression of mammary carcinoma. The goal of this study was to investigate mechanisms of Brms1-mediated metastasis suppression in transgenic mice that express Brms1 using polyoma middle T oncogene-induced models. Brms1 expression did not significantly alter growth of the primary tumors. When expressed ubiquitously using a β-actin promoter, Brms1 suppressed pulmonary metastasis and promoted apoptosis of tumor cells located in the lungs but not in the mammary glands. Surprisingly, selective expression of Brms1 in the mammary gland using the MMTV promoter did not significantly block metastasis nor did it promote apoptosis in the mammary glands or lung, despite MMTV-induced expression within the lungs. These results strongly suggest that cell type-specific over-expression of Brms1 is important for Brms1-mediated metastasis suppression.

Ubiquitous Brms1 expression is critical for mammary carcinoma metastasis suppression via promotion of apoptosis.

Breast cancer metastasis suppressor 1 (BRMS1) is a predominantly nuclear protein that suppresses metastasis in multiple human and murine carcinoma cell lines. BRMS1 interacts with several nuclear proteins including SIN3:HDAC chromatin remodeling complexes that are involved in repressing transcription. However, recent reports suggest BRMS1 may function in the cytoplasm. BRMS1 has two predicted nuclear localization sequences (NLS) that are located near the C-terminus (amino acids 198-205 and 238-244, NLS1 and NLS2 respectively). We hypothesized that nuclear localization sequences of BRMS1 were essential for BRMS1 mediated metastasis suppression. Replacement of NLS2 with NLS1 (BRMS1(NLS1,1)), truncation at 238 (BRMS1(ΔNLS2)), or switching the location of NLS1 and NLS2 (BRMS1(NLS2,1)) did not affect nuclear localization; but, replacement of NLS1 with NLS2 (BRMS1(NLS2,2)) or truncation at 197 (BRMS1(ΔNLS) which removes both NLS) promoted cytoplasmic localization. MDA-MB-231 human metastatic breast cancer cells transduced with BRMS1(NLS1,1), BRMS1(NLS2,2) or BRMS1(NLS2,1) were evaluated for metastasis suppression in an experimental xenograft mouse model. Interestingly, while NLS2 was not necessary for nuclear localization, it was found to be important for metastasis suppression since BRMS1(NLS2,2) suppressed metastasis by 85%. In contrast, BRMS1(NLS2,1) and BRMS1(NLS1,1) did not significantly suppress metastasis. Both BRMS1 and BRMS1(NLS2,2) co-immunoprecipitated with SIN3A in the nucleus and cytoplasm; however, BRMS1(NLS1,1) and BRMS1(NLS2,1) were associated with SIN3A in the nucleus only. Moreover, BRMS1 and BRMS1(NLS2,2), but not BRMS1(NLS1,1) and BRMS1(NLS2,1), down-regulated the pro-metastatic microRNA, miR-10b. Together, these data demonstrate an important role for NLS2 in the cytoplasm that is critical for metastasis suppression and is distinct from nuclear localization.

The C-terminal putative nuclear localization sequence of breast cancer metastasis suppressor 1, BRMS1, is necessary for metastasis suppression.

At the time of its construction in the 1950s, the central dogma of molecular biology was a useful model that represented the current state of knowledge for the flow of genetic information after a period of prolific scientific discovery. Unknowingly, it also biased many of our assumptions going forward. Whether intentional or not, genomic elements not fitting into this paradigm were deemed unimportant and emphasis on the study of protein-coding genes prevailed for decades. The phrase "Junk DNA," first popularized in the 1960s, is still used with alarming frequency to describe the entirety of noncoding DNA. It has since become apparent that RNA molecules not coding for protein are vitally important in both normal development and human malignancy. Cancer researchers have been pioneers in determining noncoding RNA function and developing new technologies to study these molecules. In this review, we will discuss well known and newly emerging species of noncoding RNAs, their functions in cancer, and new technologies being utilized to understand their mechanisms of action in cancer. .

Article	Year
Multiple forms of BRMS1 are differentially expressed in the MCF10 isogenic breast cancer progression model. Clinical & experimental metastasis\| PubMed ID: 18841483	2009
Breast cancer metastasis suppressor 1 up-regulates miR-146, which suppresses breast cancer metastasis. Cancer research\| PubMed ID: 19190326	2009
Breast cancer metastasis suppressor 1 coordinately regulates metastasis-associated microRNA expression. International journal of cancer\| PubMed ID: 19585508	2009
A shift from nuclear to cytoplasmic breast cancer metastasis suppressor 1 expression is associated with highly proliferative estrogen receptor-negative breast cancers. Tumour biology : the journal of the International Society for Oncodevelopmental Biology and Medicine\| PubMed ID: 19609101	2009
Linking metastasis suppression with metastamiR regulation. Cell cycle (Georgetown, Tex.)\| PubMed ID: 19690456	2009
Metastamir: the field of metastasis-regulatory microRNA is spreading. Cancer research\| PubMed ID: 19773429	2009
Subsets of ATP-sensitive potassium channel (KATP) inhibitors increase gap junctional intercellular communication in metastatic cancer cell lines independent of SUR expression. FEBS letters\| PubMed ID: 22119728	2012
Ubiquitous Brms1 expression is critical for mammary carcinoma metastasis suppression via promotion of apoptosis. Clinical & experimental metastasis\| PubMed ID: 22241150	2012
The C-terminal putative nuclear localization sequence of breast cancer metastasis suppressor 1, BRMS1, is necessary for metastasis suppression. PloS one\| PubMed ID: 23390556	2013
Hiding in Plain Sight: Rediscovering the Importance of Noncoding RNA in Human Malignancy. Cancer research\| PubMed ID: 29632135	2018

Mick D. Edmonds

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