modeling-brain-metastasis-internal-carotid-artery-injection-cancer

Modeling Brain Metastasis by Internal Carotid Artery Injection of Cancer Cells

Brain metastasis is a cause of severe morbidity and mortality in cancer patients. Critical aspects of metastatic diseases, such as the complex neural ...

Metaplastic breast carcinoma (MBC) is relatively rare but accounts for a significant proportion of global breast cancer mortality. This group is extremely heterogeneous and by definition exhibits metaplastic change to squamous and/or mesenchymal elements, including spindle, squamous, chondroid, osseous, and rhabdomyoid features. Clinically, patients are more likely to present with large primary tumours (higher stage), distant metastases, and overall, have shorter 5-year survival compared to invasive carcinomas of no special type. The current World Health Organisation (WHO) diagnostic classification for this cancer type is based purely on morphology - the biological basis and clinical relevance of its seven sub-categories are currently unclear. By establishing the Asia-Pacific MBC (AP-MBC) Consortium, we amassed a large series of MBCs (n = 347) and analysed the mutation profile of a subset, expression of 14 breast cancer biomarkers, and clinicopathological correlates, contextualising our findings within the WHO guidelines. The most significant indicators of poor prognosis were large tumour size (T3; p = 0.004), loss of cytokeratin expression (lack of staining with pan-cytokeratin AE1/3 antibody; p = 0.007), EGFR overexpression (p = 0.01), and for 'mixed' MBC, the presence of more than three distinct morphological entities (p = 0.007). Conversely, fewer morphological components and EGFR negativity were favourable indicators. Exome sequencing of 30 cases confirmed enrichment of TP53 and PTEN mutations, and intriguingly, concurrent mutations of TP53, PTEN, and PIK3CA. Mutations in neurofibromatosis-1 (NF1) were also overrepresented [16.7% MBCs compared to ∼5% of breast cancers overall; enrichment p = 0.028; mutation significance p = 0.006 (OncodriveFM)], consistent with published case reports implicating germline NF1 mutations in MBC risk. Taken together, we propose a practically minor but clinically significant modification to the guidelines: all WHO_1 mixed-type tumours should have the number of morphologies present recorded, as a mechanism for refining prognosis, and that EGFR and pan-cytokeratin expression are important prognostic markers. Copyright © 2018 Pathological Society of Great Britain and Ireland. Published by John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Phenotypic and molecular dissection of metaplastic breast cancer and the prognostic implications.

Brain metastases are the most prevalent of intracranial malignancies. They are associated with a very poor prognosis and near 100% mortality. This has been the case for decades, largely because we lack effective therapeutics to augment surgery and radiotherapy. Notwithstanding improvements in the precision and efficacy of these life-prolonging treatments, with no reliable options for adjunct systemic therapy, brain recurrences are virtually inevitable. The factors limiting intracranial efficacy of existing agents are both physiological and molecular in nature. For example, heterogeneous permeability, abnormal perfusion and high interstitial pressure oppose the conventional convective delivery of circulating drugs, thus new delivery strategies are needed to achieve uniform drug uptake at therapeutic concentrations. Brain metastases are also highly adapted to their microenvironment, with complex cross-talk between the tumor, the stroma and the neural compartments driving speciation and drug resistance. New strategies must account for resistance mechanisms that are frequently engaged in this milieu, such as HER3 and other receptor tyrosine kinases that become induced and activated in the brain microenvironment. Here, we discuss molecular and physiological factors that contribute to the recalcitrance of these tumors, and review emerging therapeutic strategies, including agents targeting the PI3K axis, immunotherapies, nanomedicines and MRI-guided focused ultrasound for externally controlling drug delivery.

Innovative Therapeutic Strategies for Effective Treatment of Brain Metastases.

Patients with brain-metastatic breast cancer face a bleak prognosis marked by morbidity and premature death. A deeper understanding of molecular interactions in the metastatic brain tumour microenvironment may inform the development of new therapeutic strategies. In this study, triple-negative MDA-MB-231 breast cancer cells or PBS (modelling traumatic brain injury) were stereotactically injected into the cerebral cortex of NOD/SCID mice to model metastatic colonization. Brain cells were isolated from five tumour-associated samples and five controls (pooled uninvolved and injured tissue) by immunoaffinity chromatography, and proteomic profiles were compared using the Sequential Window Acquisition of All Theoretical Mass Spectra (SWATH-MS) discovery platform. Ontology and cell type biomarker enrichment analysis of the 125 differentially abundant proteins ( < 0.05) showed the changes largely represent cellular components involved in metabolic reprogramming and cell migration (min  = 4.59 × 10), with high-throughput PubMed text mining indicating they have been most frequently studied in the contexts of mitochondrial dysfunction, oxidative stress and autophagy. Analysis of mouse brain cell type-specific biomarkers suggested the changes were paralleled by increased proportions of microglia, mural cells and interneurons. Finally, we orthogonally validated three of the proteins in an independent xenograft cohort, and investigated their expression in craniotomy specimens from triple-negative metastatic breast cancer patients, using a combination of standard and fluorescent multiplex immunohistochemistry. This included 3-Hydroxyisobutyryl-CoA Hydrolase (HIBCH), which is integral for gluconeogenic valine catabolism in the brain, and was strongly induced in both graft-associated brain tissue (13.5-fold by SWATH-MS;  = 7.2 × 10), and areas of tumour-associated, reactive gliosis in human clinical samples. HIBCH was also induced in the tumour compartment, with expression frequently localized to margins and haemorrhagic areas. These observations raise the possibility that catabolism of valine is an effective adaptation in metastatic cells able to access it, and that intermediates or products could be transferred from tumour-associated glia. Overall, our findings indicate that metabolic reprogramming dominates the proteomic landscape of graft-associated brain tissue in the intracranial MDA-MB-231 xenograft model. Brain-derived metabolic provisions could represent an exploitable dependency in breast cancer brain metastases.

Proteomic Analysis of the Breast Cancer Brain Metastasis Microenvironment.

In vitro studies have suggested proteasome inhibitors could be effective in triple-negative breast cancer (TNBC). We found that bortezomib and carfilzomib induce proteotoxic stress and apoptosis via the unfolded protein response (UPR) in TNBC cell lines, with sensitivity correlated with expression of immuno-() but not constitutive-() proteasome subunits. Equally, the transcriptomes of i-proteasome-high human TNBCs are enriched with UPR gene sets, and the genomic copy number landscape reflects positive selection pressure favoring i-proteasome activity, but in the setting of adjuvant treatment, this is actually associated with favorable prognosis. Tumor expression of  protein (β5i) is associated with levels of MHC-I, interferon-γ-inducible proteasome activator PA28β, and the densities of stromal antigen-presenting cells and lymphocytes (TILs). Crucially, TILs were protective among TNBCs that maintain high β5i but did not stratify survival amongst β5i-low TNBCs. Moreover, β5i expression was lower in brain metastases than in patient-matched primary breast tumors (n = 34;  = 0.007), suggesting that suppression contributes to immune evasion and metastatic progression. Hence, inhibiting proteasome activity could be counterproductive in the adjuvant treatment setting because it potentiates anti-TNBC immunity.

Tradeoff between metabolic i-proteasome addiction and immune evasion in triple-negative breast cancer.

Metaplastic breast carcinoma encompasses a heterogeneous group of tumours with differentiation into squamous and/or spindle, chondroid, osseous or rhabdoid mesenchymal-looking elements. Emerging immunotherapies targeting Programmed Death Ligand 1 (PD-L1) and immune-suppressing T cells (Tregs) may benefit metaplastic breast cancer patients, which are typically chemo-resistant and do not express hormone therapy targets.

Metaplastic breast cancers frequently express immune checkpoint markers FOXP3 and PD-L1.

Human epidermal growth factor receptor-4 (HER4) and yes-associated protein-1 (YAP) are candidate therapeutic targets in oncology. YAP's transcriptional coactivation function is modulated by the HER4 intracellular domain (HER4-ICD) , but the clinical relevance of this has not been established. This study investigated the potential for targeting the HER4-YAP pathway in brain metastatic breast cancer.

Clinicopathologic significance of nuclear HER4 and phospho-YAP(S) in human breast cancers and matching brain metastases.

The heterogeneity of tumor infiltrating lymphocytes (TILs) is not well characterized in brain metastasis. To address this, we performed a targeted analysis of immune-cell subsets in brain metastasis tissues to test immunosuppressive routes involved in brain metastasis. We performed multiplex immunofluorescence (mIF), using commercially available validated antibodies on formalin-fixed paraffin embedded whole sections. We quantitated the subsets of immune-cells utilizing a targeted panel of proteins including PanCK, CD8, CD4, VISTA and IBA-1, and analyzed an average of 15,000 cells per sample. Classifying tumors as either high (>30%) or low (<30%) TILs, we found that increased TILs density correlated with survival. Phenotyping these TILs we found tumors with low TILs had significantly higher expression of the immune-checkpoint molecule VISTA in tumor cells ( < 0.01) as well as in their microenvironment ( < 0.001). Contrastingly, the tumors with high TILs displayed higher levels of microglia, as measured by IBA-1 expression. Low TILs-tumors displayed CD8+ T-cells that co-express VISTA ( < 0.01) significantly more compared to high TILs group, where CD8+cells significantly co-express IBA-11 ( < 0.05). These results were supported by RNA analysis of a publicly available, independent cohort. Our work contributes to a growing understanding of the immune surveillance escape routes active in brain metastasis.

Characterization of Immune Cell Subsets of Tumor Infiltrating Lymphocytes in Brain Metastases.

HER2+ breast cancer patients have an elevated risk of developing brain metastases (BM), despite adjuvant HER2-targeted therapy. The mechanisms underpinning this reduced intracranial efficacy are unclear. We optimised the in situ proximity ligation assay (PLA) for detection of the high-affinity neuregulin-1 receptor, HER2-HER3 (a key target of pertuzumab), in archival tissue samples and developed a pipeline for high throughput extraction of PLA data from fluorescent microscope image files. Applying this to a large BM sample cohort ( = 159) showed that BM from breast, ovarian, lung and kidney cancers have higher HER2-HER3 levels than other primary tumour types (melanoma, colorectal and prostate cancers). HER2 status, and tumour cell membrane expression of pHER2(Y) and pHER3(Y) were positively, but not exclusively, associated with HER2-HER3 frequency. In an independent cohort ( = 78), BM had significantly higher HER2-HER3 levels than matching primary tumours ( = 0.0002). For patients who had two craniotomy procedures, HER2-HER3 dimer levels were lower in the consecutive lesion ( = 7;  = 0.006). We also investigated the effects of trastuzumab and pertuzumab on five different heterodimers in vitro: HER2-EGFR, HER2-HER4, HER2-HER3, HER3-HER4, HER3-EGFR. Treatment significantly altered the absolute frequencies of individual complexes in SKBr3 and/or MDA-MB-361 cells, but in the presence of neuregulin-1, the overall distribution was not markedly altered, with HER2-HER3 and HER2-HER4 remaining predominant. Together, these findings suggest that markers of HER2 and HER3 expression are not always indicative of dimerization, and that pertuzumab may be less effective at reducing HER2-HER3 dimerization in the context of excess neuregulin.

Landscape of Epidermal Growth Factor Receptor Heterodimers in Brain Metastases.

Intratumoral heterogeneity is caused by genomic instability and phenotypic plasticity, but how these features co-evolve remains unclear. SOX10 is a neural crest stem cell (NCSC) specifier and candidate mediator of phenotypic plasticity in cancer. We investigated its relevance in breast cancer by immunophenotyping 21 normal breast and 1860 tumour samples. Nuclear SOX10 was detected in normal mammary luminal progenitor cells, the histogenic origin of most TNBCs. In tumours, nuclear SOX10 was almost exclusive to TNBC, and predicted poorer outcome amongst cross-sectional (p = 0.0015, hazard ratio 2.02, n = 224) and metaplastic (p = 0.04, n = 66) cases. To understand SOX10's influence over the transcriptome during the transition from normal to malignant states, we performed a systems-level analysis of co-expression data, de-noising the networks with an eigen-decomposition method. This identified a core module in SOX10's normal mammary epithelial network that becomes rewired to NCSC genes in TNBC. Crucially, this reprogramming was proportional to genome-wide promoter methylation loss, particularly at lineage-specifying CpG-island shores. We propose that the progressive, genome-wide methylation loss in TNBC simulates more primitive epigenome architecture, making cells vulnerable to SOX10-driven reprogramming. This study demonstrates potential utility for SOX10 as a prognostic biomarker in TNBC and provides new insights about developmental phenotypic mimicry-a major contributor to intratumoral heterogeneity.

Article	Year
Phenotypic and molecular dissection of metaplastic breast cancer and the prognostic implications. The Journal of pathology\| PubMed ID: 30350370	2019
Innovative Therapeutic Strategies for Effective Treatment of Brain Metastases. International journal of molecular sciences\| PubMed ID: 30875730	2019
Proteomic Analysis of the Breast Cancer Brain Metastasis Microenvironment. International journal of molecular sciences\| PubMed ID: 31121957	2019
Tradeoff between metabolic i-proteasome addiction and immune evasion in triple-negative breast cancer. Life science alliance\| PubMed ID: 32423906	2020
Metaplastic breast cancers frequently express immune checkpoint markers FOXP3 and PD-L1. British journal of cancer\| PubMed ID: 32939056	2020
Clinicopathologic significance of nuclear HER4 and phospho-YAP(S) in human breast cancers and matching brain metastases. Therapeutic advances in medical oncology\| PubMed ID: 33014146	2020
Characterization of Immune Cell Subsets of Tumor Infiltrating Lymphocytes in Brain Metastases. Biology\| PubMed ID: 34064871	2021
Landscape of Epidermal Growth Factor Receptor Heterodimers in Brain Metastases. Cancers\| PubMed ID: 35158800	2022
Epigenome erosion and SOX10 drive neural crest phenotypic mimicry in triple-negative breast cancer. NPJ breast cancer\| PubMed ID: 35501337	2022

Malcolm Lim

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