visualization-of-organelles-in-situ-by-cryo-stem-tomography

Visualization of Organelles <em>In Situ</em> by Cryo-STEM Tomography

Cryogenic electron microscopy (cryo-EM) relies on the imaging of biological or organic specimens embedded in their native aqueous medium; water is ...

Materials science. Polymers in the pore.

Shigella enters epithlial cells via internalization into a vacuole. Subsequent vacuolar membrane rupture allows bacterial escape into the cytosol for replication and cell-to-cell spread. Bacterial effectors such as IpgD, a PI(4,5)P2 phosphatase that generates PI(5)P and alters host actin, facilitate this internalization. Here, we identify host proteins involved in Shigella uptake and vacuolar membrane rupture by high-content siRNA screening and subsequently focus on Rab11, a constituent of the recycling compartment. Rab11-positive vesicles are recruited to the invasion site before vacuolar rupture, and Rab11 knockdown dramatically decreases vacuolar membrane rupture. Additionally, Rab11 recruitment is absent and vacuolar rupture is delayed in the ipgD mutant that does not dephosphorylate PI(4,5)P₂ into PI(5)P. Ultrastructural analyses of Rab11-positive vesicles further reveal that ipgD mutant-containing vacuoles become confined in actin structures that likely contribute to delayed vacular rupture. These findings provide insight into the underlying molecular mechanism of vacuole progression and rupture during Shigella invasion.

Shigella subverts the host recycling compartment to rupture its vacuole.

VirE2 is the major secreted protein of Agrobacterium tumefaciens in its genetic transformation of plant hosts. It is co-expressed with a small acidic chaperone VirE1, which prevents VirE2 oligomerization. After secretion into the host cell, VirE2 serves functions similar to a viral capsid in protecting the single-stranded transferred DNA en route to the nucleus. Binding of VirE2 to ssDNA is strongly cooperative and depends moreover on protein-protein interactions. In order to isolate the protein-DNA interactions, imaging surface plasmon resonance (SPRi) studies were conducted using surface-immobilized DNA substrates of length comparable to the protein-binding footprint. Binding curves revealed an important influence of substrate rigidity with a notable preference for poly-T sequences and absence of binding to both poly-A and double-stranded DNA fragments. Dissociation at high salt concentration confirmed the electrostatic nature of the interaction. VirE1-VirE2 heterodimers also bound to ssDNA, though by a different mechanism that was insensitive to high salt. Neither VirE2 nor VirE1-VirE2 followed the Langmuir isotherm expected for reversible monomeric binding. The differences reflect the cooperative self-interactions of VirE2 that are suppressed by VirE1.

Surface plasmon resonance imaging reveals multiple binding modes of Agrobacterium transformation mediator VirE2 to ssDNA.

Scanning transmission electron microscope (STEM) imaging has recently been applied to the cryo-tomography of thick biological specimens. As previously shown for plastic sections, STEM has a number of advantages for cryo-imaging compared to conventional wide-field TEM imaging. STEM is insensitive to phase coherence and is therefore suitable for much thicker specimens than TEM. Imaging in focus, with a long depth of field, also circumvents the complications of an oscillatory contrast transfer function and missing information at low spatial frequencies. Moreover the image signal represents a quantitative measurement of the electron scattering pixel by pixel, so that absolute intensities can be interpreted in terms of material properties in the specimen. Resolution, however, is undoubtedly compromised for thick samples, especially in the regime of multiple elastic scattering. In this work we address the specific issues that arise in cryo-tomography of thick biological specimens. We formulate an imaging model based on a Boltzmann transport equation, complemented by Monte Carlo simulations. Using these theoretical tools, we identify conditions for image acquisition that will be compatible with the basic presumption of tomographic reconstruction, i.e., that for a given composition the imaging signal varies monotonically with thickness. For optimal resolution, contrast, and signal strength, we propose to generalize the on-axis bright field detector to collect at angles well beyond the illumination cone. Our results justify the generation of 3D images for micron thicknesses and beyond.

Exploring the theoretical basis and limitations of cryo-STEM tomography for thick biological specimens.

Metal ions play essential roles in many aspects of biological chemistry. Detecting their presence and location in proteins and cells is important for understanding biological function. Conventional structural methods such as X-ray crystallography and cryo-transmission electron microscopy can identify metal atoms on protein only if the protein structure is solved to atomic resolution. We demonstrate here the detection of isolated atoms of Zn and Fe on ferritin, using cryogenic annular dark-field scanning transmission electron microscopy (cryo-STEM) coupled with single-particle 3D reconstructions. Zn atoms are found in a pattern that matches precisely their location at the ferroxidase sites determined earlier by X-ray crystallography. By contrast, the Fe distribution is smeared along an arc corresponding to the proposed path from the ferroxidase sites to the mineral nucleation sites along the twofold axes. In this case the single-particle reconstruction is interpreted as a probability distribution function based on the average of individual locations. These results establish conditions for detection of isolated metal atoms in the broader context of electron cryo-microscopy and tomography.

Detection of isolated protein-bound metal ions by single-particle cryo-STEM.

Salmonella enterica induces membrane ruffling and genesis of macropinosomes during its interactions with epithelial cells. This is achieved through the type three secretion system-1, which first mediates bacterial attachment to host cells and then injects bacterial effector proteins to alter host behaviour. Next, Salmonella enters into the targeted cell within an early membrane-bound compartment that matures into a slow growing, replicative niche called the Salmonella Containing Vacuole (SCV). Alternatively, the pathogen disrupts the membrane of the early compartment and replicate at high rate in the cytosol. Here, we show that the in situ formed macropinosomes, which have been previously postulated to be relevant for the step of Salmonella entry, are key contributors for the formation of the mature intracellular niche of Salmonella. We first clarify the primary mode of type three secretion system-1 induced Salmonella entry into epithelial cells by combining classical fluorescent microscopy with cutting edge large volume electron microscopy. We observed that Salmonella, similarly to Shigella, enters epithelial cells inside tight vacuoles rather than in large macropinosomes. We next apply this technology to visualise rupturing Salmonella containing compartments, and we use extended time-lapse microscopy to establish early markers that define which Salmonella will eventually hyper replicate. We show that at later infection stages, SCVs harbouring replicating Salmonella have previously fused with the in situ formed macropinosomes. In contrast, such fusion events could not be observed for hyper-replicating Salmonella, suggesting that fusion of the Salmonella entry compartment with macropinosomes is the first committed step of SCV formation.

The entry of Salmonella in a distinct tight compartment revealed at high temporal and ultrastructural resolution.

The three dimensional ultrastructure of cells and tissues comes to light with tomography. There is an inherent tension between representing molecular detail at the highest possible resolution, on one hand, and visualizing spatial relations between large organelles or even neighboring cells in large volumes, on the other. Together with its advantages for pristine sample preservation, cryo-tomography brings particular constraints. A major challenge has been the restriction to specimens thinner than the typical cell. New imaging modalities are now available to extend cryo-tomography to thicker specimens: cryo-scanning transmission electron tomography (CSTET), soft X-ray tomography (SXT), and serial surface imaging using the focused ion beam-scanning electron microscope (FIB-SEM). Each one offers specific advantages so the optimal choice depends on priorities among resolution, composition, and volume.

Expanding horizons of cryo-tomography to larger volumes.

Using a combination of fluorescence microscopy and electron tomography, Peskett et al. (2018), in this issue of Molecular Cell, explore the nucleation of amyloid-like filaments from liquid-like condensates of huntingtin protein exon1 with disease-related polyQ extensions.

Forms and Phases in Huntingtin Protein Aggregation.

The complex environment of biological cells and tissues has motivated development of three-dimensional (3D) imaging in both light and electron microscopies. To this end, one of the primary tools in fluorescence microscopy is that of computational deconvolution. Wide-field fluorescence images are often corrupted by haze due to out-of-focus light, i.e., to cross-talk between different object planes as represented in the 3D image. Using prior understanding of the image formation mechanism, it is possible to suppress the cross-talk and reassign the unfocused light to its proper source post facto. Electron tomography based on tilted projections also exhibits a cross-talk between distant planes due to the discrete angular sampling and limited tilt range. By use of a suitably synthesized 3D point spread function, we show here that deconvolution leads to similar improvements in volume data reconstructed from cryoscanning transmission electron tomography (CSTET), namely a dramatic in-plane noise reduction and improved representation of features in the axial dimension. Contrast enhancement is demonstrated first with colloidal gold particles and then in representative cryotomograms of intact cells. Deconvolution of CSTET data collected from the periphery of an intact nucleus revealed partially condensed, extended structures in interphase chromatin.

Three-dimensional deconvolution processing for STEM cryotomography.

Cryoelectron tomography of the cell nucleus using scanning transmission electron microscopy and deconvolution processing technology has highlighted a large-scale, 100- to 300-nm interphase chromosome structure, which is present throughout the nucleus. This study further documents and analyzes these chromosome structures. The paper is divided into four parts: 1) evidence (preliminary) for a unified interphase chromosome structure; 2) a proposed unified interphase chromosome architecture; 3) organization as chromosome territories (e.g., fitting the 46 human chromosomes into a 10-μm-diameter nucleus); and 4) structure unification into a polytene chromosome architecture and lampbrush chromosomes. Finally, the paper concludes with a living light microscopy cell study showing that the G1 nucleus contains very similar structures throughout. The main finding is that this chromosome structure appears to coil the 11-nm nucleosome fiber into a defined hollow structure, analogous to a Slinky helical spring [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Slinky; motif used in Bowerman ,  10, e65587 (2021)]. This Slinky architecture can be used to build chromosome territories, extended to the polytene chromosome structure, as well as to the structure of lampbrush chromosomes.

A proposed unified interphase nucleus chromosome structure: Preliminary preponderance of evidence.

Visualization of organelles and their interactions with other features in the native cell remains a challenge in modern biology. We have introduced cryo-scanning transmission electron tomography (CSTET), which can access 3D volumes on the scale of 1 micron with a resolution of nanometers, making it ideal for this task. Here we introduce two relevant advances: a) we demonstrate the utility of multi-color super-resolution radial fluctuation light microscopy under cryogenic conditions (cryo-SRRF), and b) we extend the use of deconvolution processing for dual-axis CSTET data. We show that cryo-SRRF nanoscopy is able to reach resolutions in the range of 100 nm, using commonly available fluorophores and a conventional widefield microscope for cryo-correlative light-electron microscopy. Such resolution aids in precisely identifying regions of interest before tomographic acquisition and enhances precision in localizing features of interest within the 3D reconstruction. Dual-axis CSTET tilt series data and application of entropy regularized deconvolution during post-processing results in close-to-isotropic resolution in the reconstruction without averaging. The integration of cryo-SRRF with deconvolved dual-axis CSTET provides a versatile workflow for studying unique objects in a cell.

Correlating cryo-super resolution radial fluctuations and dual-axis cryo-scanning transmission electron tomography to bridge the light-electron resolution gap.

Article	Year
Materials science. Polymers in the pore. Science (New York, N.Y.)\| PubMed ID: 17082441	2006
Shigella subverts the host recycling compartment to rupture its vacuole. Cell host & microbe\| PubMed ID: 25299335	2014
Surface plasmon resonance imaging reveals multiple binding modes of Agrobacterium transformation mediator VirE2 to ssDNA. Nucleic acids research\| PubMed ID: 26044711	2015
Exploring the theoretical basis and limitations of cryo-STEM tomography for thick biological specimens. Journal of structural biology\| PubMed ID: 27678408	2016
Detection of isolated protein-bound metal ions by single-particle cryo-STEM. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America\| PubMed ID: 28973937	2017
The entry of Salmonella in a distinct tight compartment revealed at high temporal and ultrastructural resolution. Cellular microbiology\| PubMed ID: 29250873	2018
Expanding horizons of cryo-tomography to larger volumes. Current opinion in microbiology\| PubMed ID: 29454930	2018
Forms and Phases in Huntingtin Protein Aggregation. Molecular cell\| PubMed ID: 29775574	2018
Three-dimensional deconvolution processing for STEM cryotomography. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America\| PubMed ID: 33077585	2020
A proposed unified interphase nucleus chromosome structure: Preliminary preponderance of evidence. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America\| PubMed ID: 35749363	2022
Correlating cryo-super resolution radial fluctuations and dual-axis cryo-scanning transmission electron tomography to bridge the light-electron resolution gap. Journal of structural biology\| PubMed ID: 37268154	2023

Michael Elbaum

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