modeling-posthemorrhagic-hydrocephalus-of-prematurity-in-rats

Modeling Posthemorrhagic Hydrocephalus of Prematurity in Rats

Posthemorrhagic hydrocephalus of prematurity (PHHP) is a serious sequela of severe intraventricular hemorrhage (IVH) in very preterm infants less than 32 ...

The rates of opioid use disorder during pregnancy have more than quadrupled in the last decade, resulting in numerous infants suffering exposure to opioids during the perinatal period, a critical period of central nervous system (CNS) development. Despite increasing use, the characterization and definition of the molecular and cellular mechanisms of the long-term neurodevelopmental impacts of opioid exposure commencing in utero remains incomplete. Thus, in consideration of the looming public health crisis stemming from the multitude of infants with prenatal opioid exposure entering school age, we undertook an investigation of the effects of perinatal methadone exposure in a novel preclinical model. Specifically, we examined the effects of opioids on the developing brain to elucidate mechanisms of putative neural cell injury, to identify diagnostic biomarkers and to guide clinical studies of outcome and follow-up. We hypothesized that methadone would induce a pronounced inflammatory profile in both dams and their pups, and be associated with immune system dysfunction, sustained CNS injury, and altered cognition and executive function into adulthood. This investigation was conducted using a combination of cellular, molecular, biochemical, and clinically translatable biomarker, imaging and cognitive assessment platforms. Data reveal that perinatal methadone exposure increases inflammatory cytokines in the neonatal peripheral circulation, and reprograms and primes the immune system through sustained peripheral immune hyperreactivity. In the brain, perinatal methadone exposure not only increases chemokines and cytokines throughout a crucial developmental period, but also alters microglia morphology consistent with activation, and upregulates TLR4 and MyD88 mRNA. This increase in neuroinflammation coincides with reduced myelin basic protein and altered neurofilament expression, as well as reduced structural coherence and significantly decreased fractional anisotropy on diffusion tensor imaging. In addition to this microstructural brain injury, adult rats exposed to methadone in the perinatal period have significant impairment in associative learning and executive control as assessed using touchscreen technology. Collectively, these data reveal a distinct systemic and neuroinflammatory signature associated with prenatal methadone exposure, suggestive of an altered CNS microenvironment, dysregulated developmental homeostasis, complex concurrent neural injury, and imaging and cognitive findings consistent with clinical literature. Further investigation is required to define appropriate therapies targeted at the neural injury and improve the long-term outcomes for this exceedingly vulnerable patient population.

Prenatal opioid exposure: The next neonatal neuroinflammatory disease.

The increased incidence of opioid use during pregnancy warrants investigation to reveal the impact of opioid exposure on the developing fetus. Exposure during critical periods of development could have enduring consequences for affected individuals. Particularly, evidence is mounting that developmental injury can result in immune priming, whereby subsequent immune activation elicits an exaggerated immune response. This maladaptive hypersensitivity to immune challenge perpetuates dysregulated inflammatory signaling and poor health outcomes. Utilizing an established preclinical rat model of perinatal methadone exposure, we sought to investigate the consequences of developmental opioid exposure on  activation of peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs). We hypothesize that PBMCs from methadone-exposed rats would exhibit abnormal chemokine and cytokine expression at baseline, with exaggerated chemokine and cytokine production following immune stimulation compared to saline-exposed controls. On postnatal day (P) 7, pup PMBCs were isolated and cultured, pooling three pups per . Following 3 and 24 h, the supernatant from cultured PMBCs was collected and assessed for inflammatory cytokine and chemokine expression at baseline or lipopolysaccharide (LPS) stimulation using multiplex electrochemiluminescence. Following 3 and 24 h, baseline production of proinflammatory chemokine and cytokine levels were significantly increased in methadone PBMCs ( < 0.0001). Stimulation with LPS for 3 h resulted in increased tumor necrosis factor (TNF-α) and C-X-C motif chemokine ligand 1 (CXCL1) expression by 3.5-fold in PBMCs from methadone-exposed PBMCs compared to PBMCs from saline-exposed controls ( < 0.0001). Peripheral blood mononuclear cell hyperreactivity was still apparent at 24 h of LPS stimulation, evidenced by significantly increased TNF-α, CXCL1, interleukin 6 (IL-6), and IL-10 production by methadone PMBCs compared to saline control PBMCs ( < 0.0001). Together, we provide evidence of increased production of proinflammatory molecules from methadone PBMCs at baseline, in addition to sustained hyperreactivity relative to saline-exposed controls. Exaggerated peripheral immune responses exacerbate inflammatory signaling, with subsequent consequences on many organ systems throughout the body, such as the developing nervous system. Enhanced understanding of these inflammatory mechanisms will allow for appropriate therapeutic development for infants who were exposed to opioids during development. Furthermore, these data highlight the utility of this  PBMC assay technique for future biomarker development to guide specific treatment for patients exposed to opioids during gestation.

Perinatal Opioid Exposure Primes the Peripheral Immune System Toward Hyperreactivity.

Substance use, specifically the use of prescription and non-prescription opioids among pregnant women, is a major public health issue and chief contributor to the opioid crisis. The prevalence of Neonatal Opioid Withdrawal Syndrome has risen 5-fold in the past decade, and is a well-recognized consequence of perinatal opioid exposure. By contrast, the long-term damage to the developing brain from opioid medications is just beginning to be recognized as a serious concern. Published data suggest that opioid exposure commencing in utero negatively affects the maturation of the neural-immune system, and trajectory of central nervous system development. Methadone induces peripheral immune hyper-reactivity, lasting structural and microstructural brain injury, and significant deficits in executive function and cognitive control in adult animals following in utero exposure. Thus, to address the cascading public health crisis stemming from the multitude of infants with in utero opioid exposure who will grow up with altered neurodevelopmental trajectories, rigorous preclinical, mechanistic studies are required. Such studies will define the long-term sequelae of prenatal opioid exposure in an effort to develop appropriate and targeted interventions. Specifically, the development of novel fluid, neuroimaging and biobehavioral biomarkers will be the most useful to aid in early identification and treatment of opioid exposed infants with the greatest risk of poor clinical outcomes. These studies will be essential to understand how in utero insults determine brain structure and function in adulthood, and what targeted interventions will be required to improve long-term outcomes in the countless children being born exposed to opioids each year.

Neonatal opioid exposure: public health crisis and novel neuroinflammatory disease.

Preterm birth is a principal cause of neurological disability later in life, including cognitive and behavioral deficits. Notably, cognitive impairment has greater impact on quality of life than physical disability. Survivors of preterm birth commonly have deficits of executive function. Difficulties with tasks and planning complexity correlate positively with increasing disability. To overcome these barriers for children born preterm, preclinical and clinical studies have emphasized the importance of neurorestoration. Erythropoietin (EPO) is a endogenous cytokine with multiple beneficial mechanisms of action following perinatal brain injury. While most preclinical investigations have focused on pathology and molecular mechanisms, translational studies of repair using clinically viable biobehavioral biomarkers are still lacking. Here, using an established model of encephalopathy of prematurity secondary to placental insufficiency, we tested the hypothesis that administration of EPO in the neonatal period would attenuate deficits in recognition memory and cognitive flexibility in adult rats of both sexes. We assessed cognition and executive function in two ways. First, using the classic test of novel object recognition and second, using a touchscreen platform. Touchscreen testing allows for rigorous testing of cognition and executive function in preclinical and clinical scenarios. Data show that adult rats exhibit deficits in recognition memory and cognitive flexibility following in utero placental insufficiency. Notably, neonatal treatment of EPO attenuates these deficits in adulthood and facilitates functional repair. Together, these data validate EPO neurorestoration using a clinically relevant outcome measure and support the concept that postnatal treatment following in utero injury can improve cognition and executive function through adulthood.

Neonatal administration of erythropoietin attenuates cognitive deficits in adult rats following placental insufficiency.

Chorioamnionitis (CHORIO), placental insufficiency, and preterm birth are well-known antecedents of perinatal brain injury (PBI). Heme-oxygenase-1 (HO-1) is an important inducible enzyme in oxidative and inflammatory conditions. In the brain, HO-1 and the iron regulatory receptor, transferrin receptor-1 (TfR1), are known to be involved in iron homeostasis, oxidative stress, and cellular adaptive mechanisms. However, the role of HO pathway in the pathophysiology of PBI has not been previously studied. In this study, we set out to define the ontogeny of the HO pathway in the brain and determine if CHORIO changed its normal developmental regulation. We also aimed to determine the role of HO-1/TfR1 in CHORIO-induced neuroinflammation and peripheral inflammation in a clinically relevant rat model of PBI. We show that HO-1, HO-2, and TfR1 expression are developmentally regulated in the brain during the perinatal period. CHORIO elevates HO-1 and TfR1 mRNA expression in utero and in the early postnatal period and results in sustained increase in HO-1/TfR1 ratios in the brain. This is associated with neuroinflammatory and peripheral immune phenotype supported by a significant increase in brain mononuclear cells and peripheral blood double negative T cells suggesting a role of HO-1/TfR1 pathway dysregulation in CHORIO-induced neuroinflammation.

Chorioamnionitis Precipitates Perinatal Alterations of Heme-Oxygenase-1 (HO-1) Homeostasis in the Developing Rat Brain.

Chorioamnionitis (CHORIO) is a principal risk factor for preterm birth and is the most common pathological abnormality found in the placentae of preterm infants. CHORIO has a multitude of effects on the maternal-placental-fetal axis including profound inflammation. Cumulatively, these changes trigger injury in the developing immune and central nervous systems, thereby increasing susceptibility to chronic sequelae later in life. Despite this and reports of neural-immune changes in children with cerebral palsy, the extent and chronicity of the peripheral immune and neuroinflammatory changes secondary to CHORIO has not been fully characterized.

Sustained peripheral immune hyper-reactivity (SPIHR): an enduring biomarker of altered inflammatory responses in adult rats after perinatal brain injury.

Pregnancy is an inflammatory process that is carefully regulated by the placenta via immunomodulation and cell-to-cell communication of maternal and fetal tissues. Exosomes, types of extracellular vesicles, facilitate the intercellular communication and traffic biologically modifying cargo within the maternal-placental-fetal axis in normal and pathologic pregnancies. Chorioamnionitis is characterized by inflammation of chorioamniotic membranes that produces systemic maternal and fetal inflammatory responses of cytokine dysregulation and has been associated with brain injury and neurodevelopmental disorders. This review focuses on how pathologic placental exosomes propagate acute and chronic inflammation leading to brain injury. The evidence reviewed here highlights the need to investigate exosomes from pathologic pregnancies and those with known brain injury to identify new diagnostics, biomarkers, and potential therapeutic targets.

Placental mediated mechanisms of perinatal brain injury: Evolving inflammation and exosomes.

Cerebral palsy (CP) is the most common cause of physical disability for children worldwide. Many infants and toddlers are not diagnosed with CP until they fail to achieve obvious motor milestones. Currently, there are no effective pharmacologic interventions available for infants and toddlers to substantially improve their trajectory of neurodevelopment. Because children with CP from preterm birth also exhibit a sustained immune system hyper-reactivity, we hypothesized that neuro-immunomodulation with a regimen of repurposed endogenous neurorestorative medications, erythropoietin (EPO) and melatonin (MLT), could improve this trajectory. Thus, we administered EPO + MLT to rats with CP during human infant-toddler equivalency to determine whether we could influence gait patterns in mature animals. After a prenatal injury on embryonic day 18 (E18) that mimics chorioamnionitis at ∼25 weeks human gestation, rat pups were born and raised with their dam. Beginning on postnatal day 15 (P15), equivalent to human infant ∼1 year, rats were randomized to receive either a regimen of EPO + MLT or vehicle (sterile saline) through P20. Gait was assessed in young adult rats at P30 using computerized digital gait analyses including videography on a treadmill. Results indicate that gait metrics of young adult rats treated with an infantile cocktail of EPO + MLT were restored compared to vehicle-treated rats (p < 0.05) and similar to sham controls. These results provide reassuring evidence that pharmacological interventions may be beneficial to infants and toddlers who are diagnosed with CP well after the traditional neonatal window of intervention.

Infantile Cocktail of Erythropoietin and Melatonin Restores Gait in Adult Rats with Preterm Brain Injury.

The opioid epidemic is an ongoing public health crisis, and children born following prenatal opioid exposure (POE) have increased risk of long-term cognitive and behavioral sequelae. Clinical studies have identified reduced gray matter volume and abnormal white matter microstructure in children with POE but impacts on whole-brain functional brain connectivity (FC) have not been reported. To define effects of POE on whole brain FC and white matter injury in adult animals, we performed quantitative whole-brain structural and functional MRI. We used an established rat model of POE in which we have previously reported impaired executive function in adult rats analogous to persistent neurocognitive symptoms described in humans with POE. Pregnant Sprague-Dawley rat dams received continuous methadone (12 mg/kg/day) vs. saline infusion for 28 days via osmotic mini-pumps, exposing rats to pre- and postnatal opioid until weaning. At young adult age (P60), POE and saline exposed offspring underwent  MRI included diffusion tensor imaging and functional MRI (fMRI). Results indicate that fractional anisotropy (FA) was decreased in adult animals with POE [ = 11] compared to animals that received saline [ = 9] in major white matter tracts, including the corpus callosum ( < 0.001) and external capsule ( < 0.01). This change in FA was concomitant with reduced axial diffusivity in the external capsule ( < 0.01) and increased radial diffusivity in the corpus callosum ( < 0.01). fMRI analyses reveal brainwide FC was diffusely lower in POE ( < 10; 10% of variance explained by group). Decreased connectivity in cortical-cortical and cortico-basal ganglia circuitry was particularly prominent with large effect sizes (Glass's Δ > 1). Taken together, these data confirm POE reduces brainwide functional connectivity as well as microstructural integrity of major white matter tracts. Altered neural circuitry, dysregulated network refinement, and diffuse network dysfunction have been implicated in executive function deficits that are common in children with POE. FC may serve as a translatable biomarker in children with POE.

 methadone exposure permanently alters anatomical and functional connectivity: A preclinical evaluation.

 Novel therapeutics are emerging to mitigate damage from perinatal brain injury (PBI). Few newborns with PBI suffer from a singular etiology. Most experience cumulative insults from prenatal inflammation, genetic and epigenetic vulnerability, toxins (opioids, other drug exposures, environmental exposure), hypoxia-ischemia, and postnatal stressors such as sepsis and seizures. Accordingly, tailoring of emerging therapeutic regimens with endogenous repair or neuro-immunomodulatory agents for individuals requires a more precise understanding of ligand, receptor-, and non-receptor-mediated regulation of essential developmental hormones. Given the recent clinical focus on neurorepair for PBI, we hypothesized that there would be injury-induced changes in erythropoietin (EPO), erythropoietin receptor (EPOR), melatonin receptor (MLTR), NAD-dependent deacetylase sirtuin-1 (SIRT1) signaling, and hypoxia inducible factors (HIF1α, HIF2α). Specifically, we predicted that EPO, EPOR, MLTR1, SIRT1, HIF1α and HIF2α alterations after chorioamnionitis (CHORIO) would reflect relative changes observed in human preterm infants. Similarly, we expected unique developmental regulation after injury that would reveal potential clues to mechanisms and timing of inflammatory and oxidative injury after CHORIO that could inform future therapeutic development to treat PBI.  To induce CHORIO, a laparotomy was performed on embryonic day 18 (E18) in rats with transient uterine artery occlusion plus intra-amniotic injection of lipopolysaccharide (LPS). Placentae and fetal brains were collected at 24 h. Brains were also collected on postnatal day 2 (P2), P7, and P21. EPO, EPOR, MLTR1, SIRT1, HIF1α and HIF2α levels were quantified using a clinical electrochemiluminescent biomarker platform, qPCR, and/or RNAscope. MLT levels were quantified with liquid chromatography mass spectrometry.  Examination of EPO, EPOR, and MLTR1 at 24 h showed that while placental levels of EPO and MLTR1 mRNA were decreased acutely after CHORIO, cerebral levels of EPO, EPOR and MLTR1 mRNA were increased compared to control. Notably, CHORIO brains at P2 were SIRT1 mRNA deficient with increased HIF1α and HIF2α despite normalized levels of EPO, EPOR and MLTR1, and in the presence of elevated serum EPO levels. Uniquely, brain levels of EPO, EPOR and MLTR1 shifted at P7 and P21, with prominent CHORIO-induced changes in mRNA expression. Reductions at P21 were concomitant with increased serum EPO levels in CHORIO rats compared to controls and variable MLT levels.  These data reveal that commensurate with robust inflammation through the maternal placental-fetal axis, CHORIO impacts EPO, MLT, SIRT1, and HIF signal transduction defined by dynamic changes in EPO, EPOR, MLTR1, SIRT1, HIF1α and HIF2α mRNA, and EPO protein. Notably, ligand-receptor mismatch, tissue compartment differential regulation, and non-receptor-mediated signaling highlight the importance, complexity and nuance of neural and immune cell development and provide essential clues to mechanisms of injury in PBI. As the placenta, immune cells, and neural cells share many common, developmentally regulated signal transduction pathways, further studies are needed to clarify the perinatal dynamics of EPO and MLT signaling and to capitalize on therapies that target endogenous neurorepair mechanisms.

Chorioamnionitis disrupts erythropoietin and melatonin homeostasis through the placental-fetal-brain axis during critical developmental periods.

Cutting-edge neonatal programs diagnose cerebral palsy (CP) or "high risk of CP" using validated neurobehavioral exams in combination with risk history and neuroimaging. In rat models, digital gait analyses are the gold standard adult assessment, but tools in infant rats are limited. Refinement of infant rat neurobehavioral correlates of CP will establish translational behavioral biomarkers to delineate early mechanisms of CP in both humans and rodent models of CP.

Pilot Translational Precision Biobehavioral Assays for Early Detection of Motor Impairments in a Rat Model of Cerebral Palsy.

Minimizing central nervous system (CNS) injury from preterm birth depends upon understanding the critical pathways that underlie essential neurodevelopmental and CNS pathophysiology. Signaling by chemokine (C-X-C motif) ligand 1 (CXCL1) through its cognate receptor, CXCR2 [(C-X-C motif) receptor 2] is essential for neurodevelopment. Increased CXCR2 signaling, however, is implicated in a variety of uterine and neuropathologies, and their role in the CNS injury associated with perinatal brain injury is poorly defined. To evaluate the long-term efficacy of CXCR2 blockade in functional repair of brain injury secondary to chorioamnionitis (CHORIO), we used an established preclinical rat model of cerebral palsy. We tested the hypothesis that transient postnatal CXCR2 antagonism with SB225002 would reduce gait deficits, hypermobility, hyperactivity, and disinhibition concomitant with repair of functional and anatomical white and gray matter injury. CHORIO was induced in pregnant Sprague Dawley rats on embryonic day 18 (E18). SB225002 (3 mg/kg) was administered intraperitoneally from postnatal day 1 (P1)-P5. Rats were aged to adulthood and tested for gait, open-field behavior and cognitive and executive function deficits using a touchscreen cognitive assessment platform. Results show that transient CXCR2 blockade attenuated microstructural white matter injury after CHORIO consistent with improved anatomical connectivity, and mitigated deficits in gait coordination, posture, balance, paw placement, and stepping (p < 0.05). Animals with CHORIO were hyperactive and hypermobile with fMRI deficits in neural circuitry central to cognition. However, CXCR2 antagonism in CHORIO animals did not normalize open-field behavior, neural activity, or cognition on a touchscreen task of discrimination learning (all p > 0.05). Studies in CXCR2 knockout mice confirmed significantly impaired cognitive performance independent of CHORIO. Taken together, transient postnatal blockade of CXCR2 ameliorates aspects of the lasting neural injury after CHORIO including normalizing gait deficits and white matter injury. However, improvement in essential functional and cognitive domains are not achieved limiting the utility of this therapeutic approach for treatment of perinatal brain injury. This study emphasizes the complex, multi-faceted role of chemokines in typical neurodevelopment, circuit formation, neural network function, and injury response.

CXCR2 immunomodulatory therapy protects against microstructural white matter injury and gait abnormalities but does not mitigate deficits of cognition in a preclinical model of cerebral palsy.

Article	Year
Prenatal opioid exposure: The next neonatal neuroinflammatory disease. Brain, behavior, and immunity\| PubMed ID: 31765790	2020
Perinatal Opioid Exposure Primes the Peripheral Immune System Toward Hyperreactivity. Frontiers in pediatrics\| PubMed ID: 32670993	2020
Neonatal opioid exposure: public health crisis and novel neuroinflammatory disease. Neural regeneration research\| PubMed ID: 32985461	2021
Neonatal administration of erythropoietin attenuates cognitive deficits in adult rats following placental insufficiency. Journal of neuroscience research\| PubMed ID: 33611820	2022
Chorioamnionitis Precipitates Perinatal Alterations of Heme-Oxygenase-1 (HO-1) Homeostasis in the Developing Rat Brain. International journal of molecular sciences\| PubMed ID: 34071287	2021
Sustained peripheral immune hyper-reactivity (SPIHR): an enduring biomarker of altered inflammatory responses in adult rats after perinatal brain injury. Journal of neuroinflammation\| PubMed ID: 34666799	2021
Placental mediated mechanisms of perinatal brain injury: Evolving inflammation and exosomes. Experimental neurology\| PubMed ID: 34752783	2022
Infantile Cocktail of Erythropoietin and Melatonin Restores Gait in Adult Rats with Preterm Brain Injury. Developmental neuroscience\| PubMed ID: 35358965	2022
methadone exposure permanently alters anatomical and functional connectivity: A preclinical evaluation. Frontiers in pediatrics\| PubMed ID: 36911026	2023
Chorioamnionitis disrupts erythropoietin and melatonin homeostasis through the placental-fetal-brain axis during critical developmental periods. Frontiers in physiology\| PubMed ID: 37546540	2023
Pilot Translational Precision Biobehavioral Assays for Early Detection of Motor Impairments in a Rat Model of Cerebral Palsy. Life (Basel, Switzerland)\| PubMed ID: 37629603	2023
CXCR2 immunomodulatory therapy protects against microstructural white matter injury and gait abnormalities but does not mitigate deficits of cognition in a preclinical model of cerebral pals... Journal of neurochemistry\| PubMed ID: 39680469	2025

Yuma Kitase

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